Mattel’s Toy Recall And Supply Chain Management Essay

Why do firms contract overseas for production of products they sell? Answer: The firms contract overseas for production of the products they sell to gain certain advantages from the different countries. One of the biggest advantages is cheap labor that cut down the cost of the products. To get the advantage of the cheap fuel prices and raw materials to make the products at effective cost. The companies can get the tax benefits and other government policy advantages by producing their products at overseas. The companies can also get the lower cost suppliers from different countries. The company can get the advantage of currency fluctuation to produce the products at lower currency rate. What were the primary causes of Mattel’s recall problems? Answer: There were several causes for Mattel’s toy recall. But the primary causes are problems in manufacturing, design and usage. Manufacturing Problems: One primary problem is the use of excessive lead paint in toys. Lead was commonly used in paint. However, it is a neurotoxin and is harmful to developing brains in children. Repeated exposure can cause serious brain damage. Design problems: A second cause for recall was defect in product design. That was the result of increasing use of small powerful magnets in children’s toys. If the designs of these toys were deficient and did not adequately encase the magnets, they could become dislodged and swallowed by the children. When a child ingested more than one magnet, the ingested magnet could be bind together across intestinal folds, eventually perforating the intestine and causing serious injury or death. Product misuse: Some recalls were due to the potential for misuse. Some features of the toys generally were not a ca use for concern if children used the toy in intended way, but children often found creative ways to play that were not anticipated by designers. So, if potential danger was brought to the  company’s attention, the toy might be subject to recall. What actions taken by whom to deal with the recall problems? Do you think these actions were the right one? Why or why not? Answer: In early July 2007, one of the Mattel’s European retailer discovered excessive lead on some of the company’s toys. Mattel stopped production and launched investigation of the problem. The company received data that convinced that recall is necessary. In August Mattel announced voluntary recall of 83 Fisher-Price products sold from May 1 to August 1, 2007. The recall involved about 1.5 million toys worldwide. Two-third of the toys were pulled from inventory before they reached retail customers. After first recall Mattel announced second voluntary recall for toys with excessive lead content. The recall involved 436,000 toys worldwide. After the second recall Mattel announced to recall the Sarge toy cars, an expansion of earlier recall due to small magnets. It recalled 18.2 million toys worldwide. All of the toys recalled had been manufactured in China. Two weeks after the August 2nd recall, the owner of the Chinese factory that used the lead paint committed suicide. According to my opinion, the actions taken by Mattel were absolutely right. Mattel has been criticized heavily for having to recall not once but twice in as many weeks 20 million toys manufactured in China with lead paint and/or loose, potentially dangerous magnets. Clearly Mattel did not have sufficiently tight quality control procedures in its supply chain to compensate for the extra risks of outsourcing to relatively new Chinese subcontractors. Clearly there were design flaws in the toys with the magnets that could come loose. Though the recall of the products had created serious problems for Mattel and for manufacturers of China, the products were highly dangerous for the children which needed serious concern. But the positive point was both the Governments of China and U.S. tightened the rules regarding product safety. They also raised the product quality standards and product testing. The CEO of the Mattel had taken personal charge of the situation. He has apologized publicly and taken immediate steps to tighten quality assurance requirements on Mattel’s suppliers. What should Mattel do now? What should China do now? Answer: Mattel has faced a series of difficult and potentially crippling challenges, including the lawsuits. Mattel should attempt to rectify its mistakes and to prevent future mistakes as well. Mattel should work hard for  restoring goodwill and faith in its brands, even as it continues to be plagued with residual distrust over the lead paint scandal. Mattel should upgrade its safety standards and quality control. Mattel should be careful for approaching international supply chain management strategies. Mattel should make sure its Chinese suppliers operate ethically, including treating their workers fairly. Whereas Mattel can do randomly test finished toys, as it should now test every single batch of toys produced. Safety checks should also get beefed up at the supplier and subcontractor level prior to the finishing of the product. Reputations are hard won and easily lost, but Mattel should appear to be steadfast in its commitment to restoring its reputation. After the recall by M attel, China’s export manufacturing sector, an important factor driving country’s economic growth, had been stung by suffering highly visible problems. The â€Å"made in china† brand was in real danger. At that point China needed to prove that they could produce products to the quality and safety standards expected by the rest of the world. China should ask companies to hire full time inspection staff and allow their customers to inspect their plants. China should enforce quality licensing system for product exports. Chinese agency should increase efforts to certify exporters and should severely punish and blacklist the companies that fail to meet performance requirements. Though Mattel had taken full responsibility for these recalls and apologizes personally to the Chinese people and all of their customers who received the toys, China was fighting with the brand image in the international market. How can accountability be increased and better managed when production is moved overseas to other firms in the supply chain? Answer: There are many criticisms levelled at multinational organizations for choosing to relocate their manufacturing operations from domestic markets in developed countries to developing countries many thousands of miles away. Suspicion is often focused on cheap labor and possibly lower or less enforced health, safety and environmental legislation all contributing to lower production costs. But to increase accountability and better production management at overseas the company needs to have law inventories, flexible manufacturing and close relationship with suppliers and customers. Better managed supply chain requires close coordination with suppliers to achieve the desire level of quality and delivery. It also needs to have frequent communications with the suppliers  and customers. It entails to have close coordination among product design, engineering, the manufacturing plant, and suppliers. Ultimately, it is the responsibility of the manufacturer to ensure that its products are produced to the highest safety standards that its workers are not exploited and that health and safety and environmental standards not compromised in the search for lower prices. In this case the stakes are very high since the safety of all our children is at stake as well as the acceptance of the ‘Made in China’ designation in world markets.

Public Private Partnerships Vasco da Gama Bridge in Portugal

Better usage of regional and municipal land use plans in the future. Conclusion Even though the project did not reach its original goal, it had a great impact on regional development. The Visas dad Gamma Bridge is a six lane bridge that spans the Tags River in Lisbon, Portugal. It is the longest bridge in Europe and has a life expectancy of 120 years. Its characteristics are described in the Table here below: Official name Point Visas dad Gamma Carries Six road lanes, 7 sections Crosses Tags River Location North of Lisbon (right bank), municipality of Allocable (left bank) Maintained by Illusions DesignerRandom Riot Design Total Length 17. 182 km, longest in Europe, 9th longest in the world Width 30 m Height 155 m Longest span 420 m Speed limit 120 km/h Serves 50 million vehicles/year Construction 1995 (beginning) – 1998 (ended) Opened 29. 03. 1998 Cost 897 million euros As a result of economic globalization, countries are seeking more efficient and effective ways to improve t heir resources. One way of doing so is through Public- private partnerships especially for the development and operation of infrastructure.Public-Private partnerships provide a tool to increase the quality and efficiency of public services and to overcome the limited public funds available in a country. APP is an agreement between the government and one or more private partners in which both sides invest different resources in order to reach the target/goal by splitting the gains and losses between them. It is usually a long-term contract between the two parties, in which the private partner bears significant risk and great management responsibility.Peps may be formed in areas such as infrastructure projects such as motorways, bridges and in service areas such as schools and hospitals. There are our typical phases in implementing a APP project: the identification of the need and the legislation involved in implementing the project, the preparation and planning and the development of a contract between the public and the private partners, the award procedure, and the implementation and control of the project. Peps offer significant advantages to the public sector.These include the ability to raise additional funds in a country with budgetary restrictions, make the best use of public sector efficiencies in operation in reducing the costs and increasing the quality and offering a quicker service. Peps come in many forms and are still evolving in order to adapt to the needs of each individual project. Several elements that have to be taken into account: Political Leadership: commitment has to come from the top. Legislative and control framework: The application of these must be followed strictly. Protecting the publics interest: Quality and performance standards are required.Public Sector Involvement: Public sector must remain actively involved once a APP is established by monitoring the project. A well structured plan: Each side must know exactly what to expect f rom the beginning of the cooperation. Responsibilities must e clearly defined. Income stream: The sources of income must be clearly defined for the whole duration of the implementation of the project. Communication with stakeholders: Open communication between the parties involved must be enforced. Ensuring open market access and competition: Open and fair competition, transparency has to be taken into account during Tendering/Bidding procedure.Selection of the right partner: The selection must be done carefully taking into account the previous experience of the candidate in the specific area. In a typical APP project, a Special Purpose Vehicle (SSP) is created, which is a separate gal entity established to undertake the project, thus it is responsible for the design, building, and operation of the project. The initial capital required for a APP project may be provided by public grants, private funds, European Commission financing, loans from the owners of the SSP and/or from banks. The SSP is a consortium usually formed by a building contractor, a maintenance company and a bank. Subcontractors may also be used in the APP in order to deliver their specialized services. Until a couple of decades ago, countries followed the traditional infrastructure procurement models. However, due to the public budget constraints and the difficulty to manage large projects, many countries experienced the need to change the traditional model of public procurement. This resulted to today's Peps model which manages to deliver large infrastructure that requires large capital availability.Opportunities and Limitations of Ifs Opportunities that may appear during the implementation of a project: The risks are allocated to the ones that can manage them and are distributed. Public sector capital expenditure is reduced Cost efficiencies are better achieved – Value for Money. Delivery of the project is faster. Construction is done more efficiently with fewer contractual errors. Bet ter quality of service. Innovation and performance of personnel involved in the project is highly encouraged and promoted through incentives.Increased productivity. Infrastructure provision is accelerated. Crisis, there is higher cost in financing a project. There is less control over budget. There is less contract flexibility. The ultimate risk is still undertaken by the public partner. Private financing is usually more complicated than public financing. There are high termination costs in case of spite. Fear of prevarication of public services may be evident. Peps in Portugal Over the last 25 years Portugal has been through a major infrastructure investment program.After the end of dictatorship in the ass, Portugal went through a political stabilization phase. In the ass, after Portugal Joined the ELI, the country was able to access large capital funds. Since the country aimed to decrease its infrastructure deficit, it was evident that a new model for procurements was required and this was the APP model. The first large project developed under the APP model was the Visas dad Gamma ridge which was created under a tight schedule in time for the 1998 World Exhibition.After that several other projects followed totaling to the number of 36 APP projects until 2012. Portugal uses the APP model mainly for the creation/extension of roads, rail, health care and security. Need for the creation of Visas dad Gamma bridge – Background information The Government of Portugal identified the need to solve the congestion problem on Elision's other bridge (25 De April Bridge), and to Join previously unconnected motorways between north and south around the capital city of Lisbon, and therefore n 1991 it decided to construct a second crossing over the Tags river.As soon as the decision was made AGATES (office for the crossing of the Tags river at Lisbon), was established which was actually an inter-ministerial agency chaired by the Ministry of Public Works, with representa tives of the Ministries of Planning, Environment, and Finance. The two main goals of AGATES were to solve the ever-increasing traffic Jam on the 25 De April Bridge and supporting the north-south traffic around Lisbon. By September 1991, AGATES issued a series of studies comparing three options/locations or a new road bridge: eastern, central, and western.The option chosen was the eastern and was based on a strategy of opening new urban development, with top priority to roadways and individual transport. This option was greatly supported by the Minister of Public Works and the municipalities surrounding that area. In April 1994, Illusions, a consortium of Portuguese, British, and French companies won the international public tender to design, construct, finance and operate the new bridge. In February 1995, the construction of the bridge begun and in 29 March 1998 it opened to the public.The project was completed in a very tight schedule in order to allow easy access for World Expo '9 8, the World's fair that India by Visas dad Gamma. The construction of the bridge is considered to be one of the largest and most successful projects of the 20th century in the history of civil engineering. It gained international recognition and was awarded with the 1st prize by the Fiber-Americana Institution of architecture and civil engineering in the year 2000.The Visas dad Gamma bridge is a cable-stayed adjoined by viaducts and it carries six road lanes, with a speed limit of 120 km/h, the same as motorways, except on one section where speed is limited to 100 km/h. On windy, rainy, and foggy days, the speed limit is reduced to 90 km/h. Fifty million vehicles cross the bridge every year. The traffic on the bridge is managed in the traffic control room located in the Toll Plaza building. The bridge has a life expectancy of 120 years. Legal Framework for Peps in Portugal The legal framework for Peps in Portugal was amended on July 27 2006 by Decree Law 141/2006, which substituted the Decree Law no. 6/2003. The new law defines the general rules of interaction of the State with APP model, from definition and conception to supervision. These principles have to be followed by the public entities t the national level. The Decree Law 141/2006 requires the division of risks between the public and the private partners, which has to be clearly specified in each APP project. It also establishes the rules to follow and states that all APP proposals have to be evaluated by a commission including the Ministry of Finance and other relevant to each specific project institutions.There is also the Code of Public Contracts (COP), which is a legal document concentrating on national and legal contexts relating to public procurement. This document derives mainly from the transposition of the EX. isolations on public procurement and it applies in projects related to services, public work contracts, and many others. More specifically, this document regulates the procedures of pub lic procurements from the beginning of the Tendering process until the selection of the successful Tender, it covers the way contracts should be awarded and sets the specific rules in doing so.It also states the follow-up rules as well as possible fines if not complied. As Monitor (2005) puts it, a key feature of the institutional setting of Peps in Portugal, is that a decision in favor of a APP has to be made with the involvement of the Ministry of Finance (experts). The APP proposals have to specify long-term budgetary implications and make necessary arrangements prior to the agreement of a APP project.Another institutional framework is a APP Unit (Parabolic), which is dedicated in implementing, facilitating, evaluating and advising APP projects. It should be noted that this project with a total value of 897 million Euros was impossible to be realized only with public funds. Therefore, the APP had to be formed project is the decision about the location of the bridge. The location of the Visas dad Gamma bridge was the fundamental element for its success. As mentioned before there were three options/locations for a new road bridge: eastern, central, and western.According to Melt (2000), the eastern (Save ©m-Monotint) location for the bridge to be constructed leads to the question Why on earth was the Save ©m-Monotint road bridge option chosen? One may answer that the decision made was due to political and financial issues. The possible alternatives to this option were the central, and western locations. The central (Shells-Barriers) and the western (Alga ©s-Traffic) location could have been better alternatives satisfying the goals of decongest, and not having the active environmental impacts that the selected location of the bridge created.Critical Analysis of APP Model chosen by the Government of Portugal – Description of app Model The project was mainly funded by the private sector under a BOOT â€Å"Build, Operate, Transfer† model, more specifically the variation of DOFF (Design, Build, Finance and Operate). The BOOT model is a type of infrastructure project based on granting of concession by a principal (I. E. Government) to a promoter (private partner) who is responsible for the construction, financing, operation, and maintenance of a project over the period of concession.A BOOT project is normally funded by a mixture of private equity, through shareholders, bank loans, and sometimes with grant aids. The shareholders carry the risks but receive a return on their investment and dividends during the concession period, while the government's reward is to obtain an infrastructure without using its own budget. Governments mainly use the BOOT model for the construction of airports, waterworks, etc. In Peps, the BOOT model involves reasonable support and risk sharing from the government side. After the concession period, the promoter transfers the facility to the principal at no cost, in a fully operational condition.In this project, Illusions had the obligation to design, construct, finance and operate the new crossing/bridge. The contract was signed in 1995, for a maximum concession period of 35 years in a design, build, finance, operate and transfer scheme. In my opinion, at the time that the contract was signed, the APP model used was the most suitable since there was the need to design and build the bridge quickly with the main funds coming from the private sector. Financial Structure of the Project and the role of the participants The Visas dad Gamma bridge cost 897 million Euros, mainly financed by the private sector.The project was funded by a combination of private equity, through bank loans, shareholders, government grants, etc. More specifically the resources for this European Investment Bank Loan grant (299 m), 33% of the project Toll revenues collected from 25 April bridge (50 m), 6% of the project other resources such as shareholders and government grants (299 m), 26% of the project Both shareholders and government benefit from the project, since they receive dividends for their investment during the concession period. It should be noted that the toll price to cross the bridge varies from 2. 0 to 11 Euros, pending on the size and type of vehicle crossing the bridge. TOTAL COST 897 MILLION EURO Table 1 (Funding of Visas dad Gamma bridge) The European Investment loan was for 20 years with no capital repayment over the first 120 months, guaranteed by the commercial banks for only 15 years. Out of the total cost of the project, around 640 million Euros was for construction, payment of land, re-housing, environmental projects, and maintenance costs. It is worth mentioning that in 2000, Illusions and the Portuguese government signed an agreement in order to extend the duration of the concession period untilIn the case of the Visas dad Gamma bridge, both the public and the private partners undertook the financial risk (currency, interest rate, equity, foreign exchange , liquidity, commercial and economic risk. They also undertook the political risk (related to the provision of loans and overall investment situation in the country). Both partners undertook the shareholder's risk (market, changes in management personnel). The private partner, Illusions, undertook the technical risk (construction, operation, and maintenance risk).Problems and Limitations of the project The European Accounts Tribunal (EAT) detected a series of irregularities in the financing and the construction of the project. Some drainage and negative results ere detected to the resistance of some of the material used in the construction of the bridge. Regarding the finance aspect, the EAT stated that 95% of the costs of the building of the structure of the bridge was funded by the European Union, which is in conflict with the regulations of the community.Recommendations A few recommendations may be welcomed at this point. There should be more compliance with project goals in the future. In addition, there should be more compliance with the European legislation in the future. Another alternative location for the bridge would have been highly recommended or the construction of two mailer bridges in different locations. Moreover, a more careful study has to be made regarding the location of future similar projects, and a better usage of regional and municipal land use plans in the future is recommended.Conclusion Even though there is a lot of criticism about the APP of Visas dad Gamma bridge in Portugal, it is evident that without this procurement model the fast development of under public scrutiny. The Visas dad Gamma bridge aimed to solve the decongest problem of the other bridge of Lisbon (the 25 April bridge) and to create the north-south connection around the capital city. According to data, traders prefer to use the bridge in Scorecard (30 km from Lisbon to the North, built after the Visas dad Gamma bridge.This bridge seems to have solved the problem of the north-south connection around the capital city. The daily traffic on the Visas dad Gamma bridge is approximately 70,000 vehicles, which is below the daily traffic on the 25 April bridge with approximately 170,000 vehicles per day. Taking this into consideration, we conclude that Visas dad Gamma bridge did not manage to meet the expectations and to solve the decongest problem, however it affected positively other areas such are regional development.

Placement of children and unborn child ( social work bachelor Essay

Placement of children and unborn child ( social work bachelor Australia) - Essay Example Notably, Elly Jones has not demonstrated any change of character. There is a string possibility that she still drinks large amounts of alcohol with her partner. The incident that was reported by the neighbours is sufficient proof of a troubled household. In usual cases, alcoholism and substance abuse are issues that keep relapsing if the victim stays in the same environment in which the habits flourish (Straussner & Fewell, 2011, p. 61). It might be difficult for the partners to change their habits particularly given the fact that there is no any interventionist program on the part of Elly Jones partner, which opens every possibility of continued abuse to the children. Another issue to be considered is the fact that Mary’s character stems from the effects of the sexual abuse that she suffered as a child at the hands of her father Bob. It might require more programs and effort to mend her psychologically in order to help her recover from the trauma, distrust and other negative aspects of personality that might have been occasioned by the childhood experience. The two children and the unborn child must be brought up in an environment that would guarantee happiness, positive socialization and normal growth. The current unstable and disruptive state of their lives might cause serious psychological impairment on the part of the children. Information available shows that the children are already manifesting negative signs of abuse and disorientation. There is a serious need for debriefing. The only place that appears relatively safer for them is at their grandparents’ home. The grandparents have demonstrated sufficient responsibility and concern for the welfare of the children. It must be noted that the grandparents reported the abuse of the two children to the authorities. Furthermore, Jake and Anna have also expressed a wish to stay with their grandparents. However, the only concern relates with the character of their grandfather and Elly

The food crisis of 2008 had been threatening for a few years, mostly Essay

The food crisis of 2008 had been threatening for a few years, mostly affecting the poor. A variety of causes but mostly mad-made - Essay Example 5-19, 2008). This crisis was one of the threatening incidents that not only affected a big faction of the human race who died of hunger and malnourishment but also grabbed the attention of the developed nations to the fact that with their increase in wealth, they are not performing adequately to surmount the world’s dilemmas and concerns. It has been an observation that the prosperous, successful, and developed countries have the least priority to nourish the starving population, though they have sufficient amount of food that they can provide to the entire inhabitants of the globe. One cannot ignore the reality that governments and United Nations need to put a lot of endeavor in such crises to embark on the problem of hunger. As there is a connection between different problems, resolving of one will lead to solve others as well. The food crises resulted in the sky-high prices of food. As an outcome of it, the fuel prices augmented due to the growing demand from the emergent n ations. With the increase in cost of commodities like food, fuel etc, and the unchanging income pattern of the individuals, it became difficult for them to pay for the basic and fundamental needs like food. The people that fall in the category of most effected sufferers are the poor natives like farmers and laborers and other low-income people (Shiva & Sagbo, pp. 5-19, 2008). It is a foremost right of all the natives of a country that government provides them with food security. This phenomenon refers to a condition where sufficient food is available for all the citizens, whether they are poor or rich. According to the research, it came under indication that due to the financial crisis and change in climate/weather the world has experienced, the supply of food to the natives has seen a drastic turn down subjecting food security to jeopardy. The result of the crisis may have a grave effect on the political steadiness and may result in wars to obtain food for one self. According to th e reports of United Nations World Food Program, "For the world's most vulnerable, the perfect storm [caused by climate, poverty, environmental degradation and political instability] is hitting with a vengeance† (Cribb, pp.1-14, 2010). This statement reflects the idea about the crisis that the world is undergoing unprecedented food shortage leaving an indelible imprint on the lives of many. Due to its effects, nobody is in a condition to provide an aid to each other. The short-term factors that caused the food crises in the years 2008 and 2011 were innumerable. However, only few came under investigations, which are as follows: some countries, known for only wheat agriculture, which is one of the staple foods for the majority of the population, observed famine in past years resulting in disappearance of wheat crops (Karrer, pp. 45-69, 2008). Another reason for the crisis was the increase in the consumption of meat in developing countries resulting in shortage of meat products. F urthermore, according to studies, the fact has revealed that the proportion of the population who are obese is increasing resulting in over consumption of food worldwide. Due to the increase in oil prices, the transportation cost for carrying foods from farm to market has also risen, adding to the food prices (Karrer, pp. 45-69, 2008). Where global recession has terribly crushed the powerful economies,

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Brand Benefit Ladder Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 112

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Coca cola company - Research Paper Example The Atlanta based organization grew profusely despite the hindrances existing in the market environment. By the mid 20th century, Coca Cola’s growth rate overwhelmed that of its competitors, and with an increased product line to serve diverse consumer needs on the global scales (Petretti, 2008). The following is an informative approach to defining Coca Cola’s business programs and its portfolio in maintaining success as a market leader in the beverage industry. The company’s mission statement and strategy Coca Cola’s mission statement stipulates that its operations in the beverage industry seek to refresh, inspire, and create value to the world with a vision of achieving sustainable growth through utilization of resources globally. Arguably, the company growth and expansion in the beverage industry remains unchallenged despite Pepsi’s strive to overcome the dominance. Considerably, Coca Cola’s success in the industry seems to be integral to t he provision of over 500 brands to the global consumer. These advantageous contributions of the company’s management to the beverage markets yield unprecedented consumer loyalty (Alirezaei, 2013). Actually, the company’s marginal difference in the market share value varies greatly with its challengers whether at a foreign-local or at the international platform. The company’s mission statement changes from time with reference to the evolving consumer needs and wants. Currently, Coca Cola sets its mission as targeting to refresh the world through provision of the favorite drinks. Through the mission, the company seeks refreshment to prevail over the mind, body, and spirit of consumers thus inspiring optimism and actions on its brands (Payne, & Frow, 2013). Eventually, the company draws conclusions of yielding valuable returns on its investment because of the positive reactions of customers in the global markets. Evaluation of the mission statement The company miss ion statement focuses on the markets while neglecting other essential utilities that could create more value and undoubted performance in the company. During the evaluation process, all the factors of production, processing, and supply reflected different values while seeking to identify the company’s valuable outcomes. For instance, it is evident that the mission statement fails to account for the customers, products, and services while stipulating on its devotion to reach the markets profitably (Alirezaei, 2013). Secondly, Coca Cola’s mission statement fails to include technology, concern for survival in the beverage industry, while outlining its philosophy of refreshing the world. Through expert analysis, the mission lacks the inclusion of self-concept, concerns on Coca Cola’s public image, and its employees. The evaluative approach ascertains that the mission does not mention the values like citizenship, integrity, excellence, and teamwork (Petretti, 2008). Therefore, the statistical mark accredited to the company’s mission statement amounts to 1.3/4.5 of the score. Arguments are that the company’s success in the global market sector emanates from the highly recognized and standardized beverages in the global markets. It is certain that the company focuses on the presence of tastes and preferences of the consumer and then produces matching beverages to existing and emerging needs. Further, the poorly structured mission statement is technically incorporated to the vision thus; it is able to influence the market variables

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Case study - Essay Example A patient might not understand why a particular medication may not be available in his/her country. For instance, a 46-year old woman who purchased an over-the-counter weight loss medicine in South America cannot buy the similar medication in US. Your health teaching as a care provider is to inform them of the role of FDA and the process underlying the issue. The FDA restricts and regulates imported medications to address safety of individuals. In addition to this regulation and unavailability of some drugs is the time it takes for a drug approval. The time it takes from a drug approval starting from the drug discovery to the FDA’s Inspectional Background and Data is 22 months duration of waiting (Hertzman, 9). Aside from FDA’s restriction in the drug approval process, a comprehensive risk assessment is performed to determine safety and efficacy of a certain drug to human subjects. In line with this are phases of clinical development and are categorized in Phase I to Ph ase III (Madzarevic, 49).

Differences in Assessing and Managing Credit Risk in Investment Essay

Differences in Assessing and Managing Credit Risk in Investment Banking and Commercial Banking - Essay Example Credit risk represents the possibility of loss due to the inability of the obligor to fulfill the terms in the financial obligation (bond, note, lease, installment debt etc.). The credit risk is known by slightly different terms in investment and commercial backings. Counterparty credit risk is important for investment banking mainly in trading operations and loan credit risk is crucial in commercial banking. Though both may be caused by the same reason, default, they are managed differently. Credit risk becomes a very serious issue if accompanied by poor banking operations. Proper systems and controls should be in place for effectively assessing and managing credit risks in both type of banking operations. Credit risk arises when a borrower of a loan fails to repay it (in commercial banking) or when an issuer of a security or a bond fails to fulfill his financial obligation (a corporate who issued a bond may go bankrupt) to the borrower . For assessment of credit risks in the financial products the investment banking firms (which is more complex compared to assessment in commercial banking) rely on the credit rating assigned to the issuer by the major credit rating companies. To arrive at the credit rating, the agencies carry out a research and an assessment of the account statements (income and expenditure, balance sheet), quality of the management, previous business and financial track records, the potential business and financial risks and the ability of the management to mitigate them effectively. ... Proper systems and controls should be in place for effectively assessing and managing credit risks in both type of banking operations. Assessing Credit risk in Investment Banking and Commercial Banking Credit risk arises when a borrower of a loan fails to repay it (in commercial banking) or when an issuer of a security or a bond fails to fulfill his financial obligation (a corporate who issued a bond may go bankrupt) to the borrower (in investment banking). For assessment of credit risks in the financial products the investment banking firms (which is more complex compared to assessment in commercial banking) rely on the credit rating (considered as the representation of the financial strength of the issuer or the product that is issued to meet its financial obligations) assigned to the issuer by the major credit rating companies. To arrive at the credit rating, the agencies carry out a research and an assessment of the account statements (income and expenditure, balance sheet), quality of the management, previous business and financial track records, the potential business and financial risks and the ability of the management to mitigate them effectively. Based on the data collec ted and analysis of the same, the agencies issue a credit rating, which is a qualitative judgment of the ability of the issuer to meet his financial obligations. Standard & Poor, Moody's (US) and Fitch-IBCA (UK) are some of the leading and reputed credit rating agencies whose ratings carry more value in the financial market. The companies/products who exhibit least risk are given investment grades and with increasing possibilities of risk, the rating is graded down to the ones with definite possibility for default are

To what extent was naval rivalry the main cause of the first World War Essay Example for Free

To what extent was naval rivalry the main cause of the first World War Essay One of the main causes of World War I was the Anglo-German naval race. Britain, as an island empire, always had the navy as one of her top priorities. A key event in Britain’s naval expansion was the 1889 â€Å"Naval Defense Act† that established the two power standard: Britain considered necessary to have a navy that was not only the largest in the world, but also equal to or greater than the sum of the worlds second and third largest navies. On the other side of the channel, also Germany saw naval expansion vital and as the only way to succeed in the acquisition of overseas colony; therefore, the â€Å"official† aim of Germany’s naval expansion was to reinforce their colonial empire, but this expansion was also seen as an obvious response to the British naval plans. This situation exacerbated the relations between the two European power and set basic elements for a naval race. In 1906, the Naval Race took an important turn. Britain launched the ‘HMS Dreadnought’, this new battleship was faster (21 knots), with a bigger range ( 9-12 Km), and powered with ten twelve-inch guns instead of the usual four, it was such an advancement of naval technology that it rendered all existing battleships obsolete. A couple of years later Germany responded to Britain, planning to build four dreadnoughts in a three years time. Britain inevitably had to counterattack Germany’s expansion by announcing the building of eight dreadnoughts instead of three. Consequently the relations between them were obsessed from the building of the navies, and a direct and evident rivalry was created. The results of this frenetic naval rivalry was that by 1914 Germany ,even if Britain’s fleet remained considerably larger , had become the second naval world power; they were both ready for a more than ever imminent war. Although the naval rivalry was one of the main causes of World War I and profoundly contributed to create an aggressive situation between the European nations, there was other long terms causes beside it. One of them was the alliances system that divided Europe in two main faction: on one side the triple alliance, including Germany Austria and Italy, on the other the triple entente, including France Russia and England. These alliances were defined as defensive, but choosing allies obviously also implicate choosing the most likely enemies, therefore this two blocs were ready to fight in case of a war. Another long term cause was the colonial rivalry. In the decades preceding WWI almost all the European nations were involved in the â€Å"Scramble for Africa†. All the nations wanted to demonstrate their strength occupying vast areas of Africa. France was one of the most successful, controlling almost all the West and Centre Africa. Also Germany started an intense colonial expansion and gained a million square miles territory between 1884 and 1899. Britain gained the control of some areas in the south of Africa, in Egypt and on the East and Gold Coast. The colonies were often seen as a source of free raw materials and as the only areas of possible expansion without deeply compromising European balance. Effects of the colonial rivalry can be analyzed in two different ways, on the one hand colonies were a sort of safety valve allowing the European power to keep the contrasts away from their continent; on the other hand this rivalry implemented the tension between the colonists nations, causing aggressive foreign policy. Besides this long term causes there was also the event that formerly caused the outbreak of war: the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The heir to the throne was assassinated on 28 June 1914 during a visit to the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The attack was planned from a group of six young Bosnians, even if their first plan to kill Franz Ferdinand failed, Gavrilo Princip, one of them, was able to approach the car and shot the Archduke and his wife. The assassination was the perfect pretext for Austria to start military actions against Serbia, and after gaining Germany’s support Austria-Hungary finally mobilized her troops against Serbia on 25 July. As a reaction Russia mobilized against both Germany and Austria, Germany declared war on France and Britain declared war on Germany for violating Belgium neutrality. In conclusion none of these causes can be defined as the only cause of war. All of them contributed to create hostility between European powers and to create the basis for a World War. The Naval Rivalry was probably a result of the pre existing tensions but certainly increased the hostility between Britain and Germany. Anyway the presence of such a great navy and army do not implicate a war but should be a deterrent since large scale destructions would be inevitable. It’s also true that the possession of a great and expensive navy and army pushes to use and test them. The overwhelming impression is that the long term causes made a conflict inevitable and that the short term causes such as the Balkan and Moroccan crisis just helped to increase the tension; while the Franz Ferdinand’s assassination was just the excuse the nations were looking forward to start the conflict.

Automobile Industry Essay Example for Free

Automobile Industry Essay Strong demand growth due to rising incomes, growing middle class, and a young population is likely to propel India among the world’s top five auto-producers by 2015 Growth in export demand is also set to accelerate. Tata Nano and the upcoming Pixel have opened up the potentially large ultra low cost car segment Innovation is likely to intensify among engine technology and alternative fuels. Advantage India Rising investments Policy support India has significant cost advantages; auto firms save 10-25 per cent on operations in India compared to Europe and Latin America A large pool of skilled manpower and a growing technology base will induce greater investments. The government aims to develop India as a global manufacturing as well as RD hub There has been a wide array of policy support in the form of sops, taxes and FDI encouragement. FY10 Market size: USD57.7 billion Notes: RD – Research and development, FDI – Foreign direct investment; FY – Indian financial year (April – March); FY16E – estimated figure for financial year 2016; estimates are from the government’s Automotive Mission Plan (2006 – 2016) ADVANTAGE INDIA. For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org. 3. Automotives AUGUST 2012 Contents ï  ¶ Advantage India ï  ¶ Market overview and trends ï  ¶ Growth drivers ï  ¶ Success stories: Maruti, Tata Motors ï  ¶ Opportunities ï  ¶ Useful information For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org 4 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Evolution of the Indian automotives sector 20.4 million units (2012) 11 million units (2007) 2008 onwards 0.6 million units (1992) 1983 1992 0.4 million units (1982) Before 1982 †¢ Closed market †¢ Only 5 players †¢ Joint venture (JV) Indian government and Suzuki to form Maruti Udyog; started production in 1983 †¢ Component manufacturers also entered via JV route †¢ Buyer’s market 1993 -2007 †¢ Sector de-licensed in 1993 †¢ Major original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) started assembly in India †¢ Imports allowed from April 2001 †¢ Introduction of value added tax in 2005 †¢ More than 35 players in the market †¢ Removal of most import controls †¢ Indian companies gaining global identity †¢ Long waiting periods and outdated models †¢ Seller’s market Source: Tata Motors, Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), Aranca Research, Notes: JV – Joint Venture MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org 5 Automotives AUGUST 2012 The automotives market is split into four segments Automobiles Two-wheelers Passenger vehicles Commercial vehicles Three-wheelers Mopeds Passenger cars Light commercial vehicles Passenger carriers Scooters Utility vehicles Motorcycles Multi-purpose vehicles Medium and heavy commercial vehicles Goods carriers Electric twowheelers For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS 6 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Revenues have been growing at a strong pace → Gross turnover of automobile manufacturers in India expanded at a CAGR of 17.7per cent over FY07-1 1 Excluding three wheelers, cars account for the largest share of revenues (66.2 percent in 2010) Revenue trends over the past few years in USD million 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.5 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 FY07 FY08 FY09 FY10 FY11 66.2% 36.6 33.3 21.5% Trucks Cars 58.6 CAGR: 17.7% 43.3 → Market* break-up by revenues (2010) 12.3% Two Wheelers Source: SIAM, Datamonitor, Aranca Research Note: *does not include three wheelers For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS 7 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Sector’s growing strength evident from rise in total production figures Total production of automobiles in India (million units) 16.0 → → 12.0 7.6 8 8.4 10.0 8.0 6.0 1.3 0.4 0.4 1.2 0.4 0.4 1.6 0.6 0.5 1.3 0.5 0.6 1.8 2.4 4.0 6.5 8.5 Notes: CAGR – Compound annual growth rate 10.5 Passenger vehicles was the fastest growing segment during that period with a CAGR of 14.5 per cent 14.0 13.4 0.8 0.8 3.0 2.0 0.0 FY05 FY06 FY07 FY08 FY09 0.4 0.5 FY10 0.6 0.6 FY11 FY12 Passenger Vehicle Three Wheelers Commercial Vehicle Two Wheelers Source: SIAM, Aranca Research For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS 0.8 0.8 3.1 15.5 Automobiles production increased at a CAGR of 13.2 per cent over FY05-12 18.0 8 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Market break-up by production volume → Two wheelers dominate production volumes; in FY12, the segment accounted for more than three quarters of total automotives production in the country Market share by volume (FY12) → In fact, India is the world’s second largest two wheeler producer; the country is also the fourth largest commercial vehicle producer 4% 4% 16% Two Wheelers Passenger Vehicle Commercial Vehicle Three Wheelers 76% Source: SIAM, Aranca Research For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS 9 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Market break-up of individual segments by production volumes †¦ (1/2) Shares in production of passenger vehicles (FY11) Shares in production of commercial vehicles (FY11) 11.5% Passenger cars 8.1% 36.0% MCV HCV Passenger Carriers MCV HCV Goods Carriers LCV Passenger Carriers 49.7% 6.1% LCV Goods Carriers Utility vehicles/multipurpose vehicles 88.5% Source: SIAM, Aranca Research Notes: LCV – Light commercial vehicle; MCV – Medium commercial vehicle; HCV – Heavy commercial vehicle For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS 10 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Market break-up of individual segments by production volumes †¦ (2/2) Shares in production of three wheelers (FY12) Shares in production of two wheelers (FY12) 15.8% Goods carriers 15.6% 5.3% Mopeds Motorcycles Passenger carriers Scooters 84.2% 79.1% Source: SIAM, Aranca Research For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS 11 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Exports have also grown strongly †¦ (1/2) → Automobiles export volumes increased at a CAGR of 22.4 per cent over FY05–FY12 Over this period, the fastest growth was in the two wheeler segment (25.8 per cent) followed by three wheelers (21.9 per cent) Exports of automobiles from India (million units) 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 2 0.5 0.6 0.8 1 0.5 1.1 0.5 1.5 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.03 0.1 → 0.2 0.04 0.1 0.2 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.06 0.1 0.04 0.2 0.04 0.2 0.08 0.3 FY05 FY06 FY07 FY08 FY09 FY10 FY11 FY12 Passenger Vehicle Commercial Vehicle Three Wheelers Two Wheelers Source: SIAM, Aranca Research For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS 0.1 0.4 12 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Exports have also grown strongly †¦ (2/2) → Two wheelers accounted for the largest share in exports (by volume) at 67 per cent in FY12 Passenger vehicles account for a sizeable 18 per cent of overall exports Exports shares by volume (FY12) → 18% Passenger Vehicle 3% 12% 67% Commercial Vehicle Three Wheelers Two Wheelers Source: SIAM, Aranca Research For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS 13 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Presence of a clear leader in each segment of the market → The automotives industry is concentrated with market leaders in each segment commanding a share of over 40 per cent Market Leader Passenger Vehicles MCVs HCVs LCVs Three Wheelers 45% 16% Others 15% 7% 63% 23% 7% 59% 30% 4% 4% 41% 40% 10% Motorcycles Scooters 59% 24% 7% 6% 51% 21% 14% Source: SIAM, Aranca Research Notes: Data is for FY10 10% For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS 14 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Notable trends in the Indian automotives sector †¢ Large number of products available to consumers across various segments; this New product launches has gathered pace with the entry of a number of foreign players †¢ Reduced overall product lifecycle have forced players to employ quick product launches Improving productdevelopment capabilities †¢ Increasing RD investments from both the government and the private sector †¢ Private sector innovation has been a key determinant of growth in the sector; two good examples are Tata Nano and Tata Pixel – while the former has been a success in India, the latter is intended for foreign markets †¢ In FY11, the CNG market was worth more than USD330 million and CNG cars Alternative fuels and taxis are expected to register a CAGR of 28 per cent over FY11-FY14 †¢ The CNG distribution network in India is expected to increase to 250 cities by 2018 from 30 cities in 2009 For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org MARKET OVERVIEW AND TRENDS 15 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Contents ï  ¶ Advantage India ï  ¶ Market overview and trends ï  ¶ Growth drivers ï  ¶ Success stories: Maruti, Tata Motors ï  ¶ Opportunities ï  ¶ Useful information For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org 16 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Sector has been benefitting from strong demand and product innovation Growing demand Growing demand Policy support Strong government support Increasing investments Rising incomes, young population Inviting Greater availability of credit and financing options Goal of establishing India as an automanufacturing hub RD focus; GOI has set up technology modernisation fund Large domestic market Policy sops, FDI encouragement Resulting in Rising investments from domestic and foreign players Greater innovation in products; market segmentation Strong growth in exports as well Strong projected demand making returns attractive Notes: GOI – Government of India; For updated information, please visit www.ibef.org GROWTH DRIVERS 17 Automotives AUGUST 2012 Rising incomes and a growing middle class driving domestic demand growth Rising incomes; growing middle class †¢ Changing income dynamics of India’s population 70 million households Aspirers: annual income INR90,000200,000 Seekers: annual income INR200,000500,000 Strivers: annual income INR500,0001,000,000 Globals: annual income INR1,000,000 Personal (nominal) disposable income is expected to rise annually at 8.5 per cent over FY11-15 Rising middle class – size of the middle class expected to touch 550 million by 2025 from 50 million in 2010 Favourable demographics – a young population is also driving up the demand for cars Demand for commercial vehicles have got a boost due to development of roadways and greater market access 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2005 Strivers 2010 Seekers 2015 Deprived Deprived annual income

Effect of the Local Environment on Bees

Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Local Environment Europe The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. Bees have an important ecological role; they are insect pollinators providing a crucial service. Without insect pollination human diet would be very different to how we know it now. Declines in pollinators have been reported and by attempting to understand the how the local environment affects bee abundance and diversity it may be possible to prevent any further decline. Samples were collected at six sites across Europe in each site there was a disturbed landscape and a natural landscape and within each of these a hot and a cold area. Samples were collected, pinned and identified to genera and the Halictus measured. Analysis found that there was no significant difference in size between different countries, landscape and temperature. The number of individuals and the number of genera did not significantly differ between temperature, landscape and country however on a smaller country level there were differences in the numbers of individuals and genera at different landscapes. The number of bumblebees was affected by the landscape with more individuals found in the disturbed landscapes; it is possible that due to the foraging ability and feeding preferences that bumblebees are able to gain an advantage in a disturbed landscape. Different genera were found in different regions with high numbers of Panurgus and Panurginus found in Spain and Catalunya. The number of bumblebees was also found to be significantly related to latitude. These differences in composition in different areas could be seriously affected in the face of climate change. The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. 1: Background and importance â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.† Albert Einstein 1.1: The importance of bees Bees provide the critical ecosystem service of pollination (Kearns et al 1998). Insect pollination is essential for our life as we know it. 84% of crops in the EU depend on insect pollination (Williams 1994) and one third of our diet can be attributed to insect pollination, either directly or indirectly (McGregor 1976). Of the insect pollinators it is bees which provide the most pollination, bees which are highly adapted to flower visitation, have been confirmed to be pollinators for 72.7% of crop species and it is thought they could be responsible for the pollination of another 10.2% (Williams 1994, Roubik 1995). Declines in bees point towards serious consequences for natural ecosystem process and agricultural processes (Biesmeijer et al 2006). The declines being experienced on local and regional scales present a worrying situation with habitat loss, fragmentation, agricultural intensification and pesticide use causing declines in honey bees, solitary bees, wild bees and bumble bees (Steffan-Dewenter et al 2005). The greatest diversity of bees in the world is experienced in arid and semi-arid regions of the world including the Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe (Danforth 2007). Most of the bees in the world are solitary bees (National Research Council of the National Academies 2007) and of the solitary bees the majority of them are resource specialists, oligolectic (Wcislo and Cane 1996). Oligolectics are bee species which collect pollen from one genus or species but can collect nectar from a variety of plants, they are often referred to as specialists. Polylectic bee species are generalists; they can collect pollen from a variety of flowering plants and include the honeybee (Apis) and the bumblebee (Bombus). In theory the risk of extinction is elevated in oligolectic bees as their presence and distribution is limited by just one floral host (Zayed and Packer 2007). Work by Cane et al (2006) into urban habitat fragmentation showed the abundance and richness of oligolectic bees to have declined but not to have declined in the polylectic bees. Due to the important role of bees it is essential to understand the abundance and diversity of bees across the landscape and the local factors that affect them. By understanding the local factors affecting the diversity and abundance of bees it may be possible to effectively manage and conserve bees and help to prevent any further declines in diversity and abundance. 1.2: Landscape Much of the natural habitat in Europe has been lost and the habitats with the highest species richness are the remaining semi-natural areas (Pimentel et al 1992). The impact of disturbance on insect communities is not so extensively studied as the impact on vegetation, on the studies that are available results show that different insect groups respond differently to disturbance (Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke 2003). Study by Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke (2003) on the effect of habitat management and landscape on bees and wasps in orchards in Europe showed that the vegetation was more significantly affected by the management practices than the insects. Bee species richness is correlated with the percentage of grassland in the surrounding landscape (Dauber et al 2003, Hendrickx et al 2007, Steffan-Dewenter et al 2002). The bees in the study by Hendrickx et al (2007) showed not only a decline with distance from semi-natural patches but also a decline with increasing management practices. The other groups in the study experienced increased numbers with proximity to semi-natural habitat but no significant declines with increasing agricultural management. The results for bees can be attributed due to bees having such a strong dependence on floral resources (Tscharntke et al 1998). Low plant diversity with limited floral resources may not to be able to support a high diversity of insects thus resulting in lower insect diversity and the ability to support only the generalist species (Westphal et al 2003). Proximity to floral resources and nesting sites is important as foraging distances can be fairly small. Large bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris can forage distances up to 3000m, as foraging distances are related to body size, smaller bees may only be able to forage a few metres (Westphal et al 2006). In the tropical forests of Costa Rica pasture management and the floral resources showed to have no significant impact on the diversity or abundance of bees, however deforested countryside just metres away from the forest contained a different community composition (Brosi et al 2006). The complexity of landscapes means that the impact of disturbance can vary depending on the frequency, intensity and extent of the disturbance (Samways 2005). Moderate disturbance can actually increase the diversity of the area by opening up areas for colonisation by providing ecological niches and opportunities for rarer species (Caswell 1976, Connell 1978, Petraitis et al 1989). Alternately diversity could be lowered as the dominance of opportunistic species is increased (Margalef 1968). Bees depend on floral resources for nectar and pollen and can only travel certain distances from their nesting site to reach it, both flowers and nests need to be close by. Therefore declining floral resources, and declining suitable nest sites, as experienced in large scale disturbed areas, may result in the declining numbers and diversity of bees. 1.3: Microclimate- temperature The microclimate, the lowest two metres of the atmosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 1992), is the layer of the atmosphere where the majority of plants and animals live (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The soil surface (or other substance, for example forest or concrete) influences the heat and moisture budget of the surrounding atmosphere producing localised variations in the climatic conditions, for example temperature, windspeed and humidity. The relationship between plant and microclimate is a close one with plants affecting the climatic conditions around them and the microclimate affects the factors controlling the functioning of the plant including the availability of the products required for photosynthesis. Insects benefit from this interaction and due to the close mutalistic relationship between some plant and insect species, for example plants and pollinators, are dependent on a healthy relationship between microclimate and plants. An unsuitable microclimate will lead to the deterioration of plant life and eventual death of the plant and insects dependent on it. 1.4: Insects, temperature and body size In many insects body temperature is essential in order to gain flight. An insect needs to gain enough energy to fly; it needs to raise the thoracic temperature above the temperature of the environment (Bishop and Armbruster 1999) this can be achieved by basking and endothermy (producing heat in the muscles) (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The size of the insect plays a vital role in the ability to heat up and subsequently fly and forage. A study by Casey and Joos (1983) found that the proportion of heat lost from the thorax per time unit decreases as the body mass of the insect increases, therefore larger insects are slower at gaining and loosing heat. Bishop and Armbruster (1999) also concluded that the ability to raise temperature in order to fly increases with body size making bumblebees better thermoregulators than solitary bees. Even when looking at solitary bees larger solitary bees will be better at thermoregulation than smaller solitary bees. Foraging activity can be restricted by thermoregulation factors (Heinrich 1974) and not just over winter. In the summer months foraging at high latitudes and higher temperatures may prove to be difficult for larger insects with solitary bees reaping the floral rewards. Whilst in cooler areas at lower latitudes larger bees, such as bumblebees will have the advantage (Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Tropical bumblebees have been found to be the largest bees, an exception to the rest of the findings by Peat et al (2205). They found that the mean size of bumblebees varies between different climates with colder climates having a larger mean size than those of warmer climates. Size variation of bumblebees within a region was found not to be related to temperature but other factors, possibly to improve colony foraging with different sizes able to visit different flowers (Peat et al 2005). It is not just at different temperatures, different latitudes and different elevations that there are heat constraints on the species present but also a daily sequence. Heinrich (1976) observed bees visiting flower patches and noted the day sequence process. Large insects, such as large bumblebees, are able to achieve a body temperature high enough to fly at a lower temperature than a smaller insect, for example a small solitary bee. This then means that earlier in the day the bumblebee can begin to forage and last longer into the evening when the temperature of the environment begins to fall. However in the midday heat the bumblebee may become overheated and need to retreat and cease flying for a few hours. The small solitary bee although not able to start until later and unable to continue into the evening will be able to cope in the midday heat and continue to forage (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The temperature of the area determines the foraging activity of bees and will influence the bees present in the area. What is under-researched is the effect of very localised temperature has on the bees and size of bees present. 1.5: Climate The temperature of the environment does not only determine the body temperature of the insect but also the geographical range (Gates 1993). Over the past 30years shifts in the abundance and distribution of a variety of species have been witnessed due to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). Hickling et al (2006) studied the distributions of different taxonomic groups in Britain over the last 25years to examine any shifts in range that may have occurred. A shift in distribution upwards and northwards was found in most taxonomic groups with the latitude being a more significant factor than elevation. Alterations to geographic ranges will impact different organisms in different ways and at different times in their lifecycle. It is possible that the interactions between organisms could be severely affected and possibly even destroyed, in some instances resulting in the extinction of one or both of the species. With these shifts in distributions comes the increased possibility of species extinctions, one prediction for 2050 using a mid-range climate scenario showed 15-37% of species committed to extinction (Thomas et al 2004). In order to avoid the risk of extinction species will have to be able to keep up with the changing climate by migrating at fast enough rates however barriers such as mountains and fragmented, disturbed landscapes may hinder this migration (Pearson and Dawson 2003). General climate models which observe the possible consequences of climate change show a general pattern of the increasing of the Mediterranean summer drought (Gates 1993). As a result it is expected that a shift in species composition will occur and drought conditions will lead to reduced plant cover. This will inevitably impact many insect species including pollinators, such as bees, that will lose their source of nectar and pollen. Research suggests that resource specialists are likely to be the first to suffer declines as they rely on just one plant for their pollen (Cane et al 2006). Looking at the effect of local temperatures on abundance and richness may be able to give an indication of what will follow with global climate change and thus be an aid for planning and conservation measures. 2: Aims and Objectives Bees are essential for pollination and are the key to maintaining life as we know it. Reaching and maintaining the right temperature is essential for an insect’s flight, there is evidence that reaching this temperature is related to body size but does it vary with temperature within a microclimate? Does the local temperature affect the bee diversity and abundance and will this provide any insights into what may happen in the face of global climate change? Within Europe it has been reported that it is the remaining semi-natural habitats that contain the most species richness. If this is the case it would be expected that areas of human disturbance would experience a much lower diversity and abundance. In this project the aim is to examine the effect that the local conditions, temperature and landscape, have on the abundance and genera of bees in a selection of regions across Europe. Within this there are three main objectives to be examined: To determine if the local temperature affects the abundance and diversity of bees. To determine if the surrounding landscape, disturbed or natural, affects the diversity and abundance of bees. To establish whether the size of certain genera are significantly affected by the local environment. 3: Methodology 3.1: Site selection Samples of pollinators were collected in field sites throughout Europe in the summer of 2007 as part of the CITIRAT (Climate Interactions with Terrestrial plant Interactions a Risk Assessment Tool) project. The CITIRAT project is part of the wider EU ALARM (Assessing LArge scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project (http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/). The field sites for the CITIRAT project were pre-determined by ALARM, with the core sites situated in different regions throughout Europe allowing the study of most of the climatic regions in Europe. For each of the core sites there are two sites measuring 4km by 4km within 50km of each other. One of the two sites being predominantly natural or semi-natural and the other site a disturbed landscape. The two focal sites have being selected so that the geological and environmental parameters are as similar as possible allowing the human disturbance to be the most distinguishing features between the sites. Figure 3.1.1 shows examples of the land cover in each category. Table 3.1.1: An example of the classification of disturbed and natural sites, categories taken from the level 3 CORINE 2000 land cover classification. Disturbed Non-irrigated arable land, pastures, discontinuous urban fabric, complex cultivation procedures, fruit trees and berry plantations, agro-forestry areas, olive groves, permanently irrigated land. Natural/semi-natural Mixed forest, coniferous forest, broadleaved forest, transitional woodland-scrub, sclerophyllous vegetation, natural grasslands. Using GIS analysis the temperature for each of the disturbed and natural areas was calculated using a model which combined the elevation, slope, aspect, average daytime temperature, clear sky solar radiation maps. This model then gave the temperatures for points throughout the landscape, the hottest 10% and coldest 10% of points were selected and ranked, the top two temperature points for both hot and cold were then determined and ready for fieldwork to begin. 3.2: Sampling method Each of the two landscapes (disturbed and natural) had two sampling rounds approximately 2 weeks apart. Within each sampling round two hot and two cold temperature sites were used (as predetermined by the GIS analysis). Each temperature spot had three cluster sets of pan traps, one white, one yellow and one blue. Each cluster contained five pan traps of a single colour. Each cluster was situated five metres apart in open, low vegetation at ground level. The pan traps were left out over a two day period in dry conditions with low wind and a temperature of greater than 15 ºC. Leaving pan traps out over a two day period eradicated any daily variation in bee species present due to daily temperature fluctuations. By using all three coloured pan traps bias was reduced as a range of colour preferences could be catered for (Leong and Thorp 1999). When the samples, preserved in alcohol, were returned to Leeds the samples were sorted taking note of the number of honeybees, number of bumble bees, number of other bees, number of hoverflies and the number of butterflies. Anything else that was collected in traps was discarded. The bumblebees and other bees were removed from the sample tubes, and were dried, pinned and labelled. The bees were then identified to genus level and the results recorded. Figure 3.3.1: Map of Europe showing the ALARM core sites. The yellow dots indicate the sites used in this analysis and their ‘country’ label. Adapted from an image available at: http://www.alarmproject.net. 3.3: Analytical method Samples were collected at sites all across Europe. Time and resource restraints meant that not all of the sites sampled could be pinned and identified for use in this study. The sites used were carefully selected with sites showing high variation in elevation and therefore temperature differences chosen. Figure 3.3.1 shows the European sites used in this project and table 3.3.1 shows the latitude and longitude of the sites. From here on these ‘sites’ will be called countries to avoid confusion. Table 3.3.1: Sites used with the latitude and Longitude Country Landscape Latitude Longitude Austria Disturbed 47.5205 14.1432 Austria Natural 48.0125 15.1620 Catalunya Disturbed 41.2620 1.7714 Catalunya Natural 41.2526 1.9006 Germany Disturbed 51.5491 9.7754 Germany Natural 51.4540 12.9410 Italy Disturbed 45.6202 12.4526 Italy Natural 45.7775 12.6088 Spain Disturbed 39.3153 -4.0661 Spain Natural 39.4133 -4.0650 UK Disturbed 51.5082 -1.5310 UK Natural 51.7650 -0.4585 To calculate the diversity for each of the conditions at each of the sites the Simpson’s diversity index, which is â€Å"one of the most meaningful and robust diversity measures†(Magurran 2004) was used. The index works by calculating the probability, that from a community of infinite size, two individuals will belong to the same species. The Simpson diversity index was expressed as 1-D therefore meaning that as the Simpson’s diversity decreases as does the diversity, this logical adaptation of the index mean that the diversity of the samples could easily be calculated and compared. In order to determine if the size of bees are affected by the local conditions one genus, Halictus was chosen due to them making up a large proportion of total individuals present. To measure the Halictus samples a random number table was used to determine which specimens should be measured. All of the specimens were females and from two countries, Spain and Germany. Digital callipers were used under a microscope to measure the width of the thorax, in-between the base of the wings. The numbers of Bombus’ were looked at as well as the size of the Halictus. Bombus’ are known to be (generally) a larger body size and better thermoregulators so provide a good genus to use as an indication of distribution related to the local environment factors. The information available for use in the statistical analysis was the number of individuals, the number of genera, the temperature (hot or cold), the landscape (disturbed or natural), the country, the sample round (1 or 2), the site (either 1 or 2), the diversity (Simpson’s 1-D), the number of bumblebees, the number of solitary bees and for a selection of sites the size of Halictus. The statistical analysis was carried out using R and Minitab for the principal component analysis. Excel was used for the production of some of the graphics. Not all the data was normally distributed, distributions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis used was a mixed effects model but not all data meet the assumptions so where unavoidable non-parametric tests were used, a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL). 4: Results Nineteen Genera were identified; a list of these genera and authorities can be viewed in the appendix A. One genus could not be confirmed despite various opinions but is suspected that it might be Panurginus. 4.1: Individuals and genera Figure 4.1.1: The mean number of individuals per sample round, error bars indicate  ±1 SE. (t66= -5.804, p= A mixed effects model was used for the analysis of the individuals. The random effects were site, landscape and country. The standard deviation estimate for country was 0.528 showing that for the countries there was a variation from the mean, this may affect the outcome of the model. The only significant factor was sample round (t66=-6.456, p= There were no significant differences in individuals within temperature, landscape, sample round or any of the interaction terms. To alleviate the problem of countries having a great variation in the numbers of individuals the model was rerun with countries as a fixed factor. This reduced the variation of the random effects and recalculated the fixed effects. Sample round remained the only significant factor (t66= 5.804, p= The dataset for genera was non-parametric so the model used was the glmmPQL. A very low standard deviation estimate was given for each of the random factors (country= 4.2: Diversity The generalised mix effects model for diversity used Simpson’s 1-D values. The estimates of standard deviation for the random effect of country were extremely low, Figure 4.1.2: The mean diversity (Simpson’s 1-D) for each country. Error bars indicate  ± 1 SE. The diversity was not significantly for any of the factors, Standard deviation between countries was low at 4.3: Bumblebees and other bees The numbers of bumblebees (Bombus spp) were used in a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL) in order to determine if there were significant differences in the variation between temperature, landscape and sample round. The standard deviation of country was high at 1.376 showing that within the effect of country there was a lot of variation from the mean, thus contributing to the variation in bumblebees and possibly influencing the overall model. Of the fixed factors sample round and landscape were shown to be significant. Bumblebee numbers were significantly different for sample round (t79=-3.59, p=0.001, 95%CL) and landscape (t76= -3.314, p=0.001, 95%CL). Rerunning the model with country as a fixed factor changed the results. The standard deviation of the site was low at 81= -3.153, 95%CL), sample round (p=0.001, t81 = -3.394,) and also several countries were significantly different from the control country which was Austria. Catalunya (p=0.001, t81=-3.488, 95% CL), Italy (p=0.043, t81=-2.060, 95%CL), Spain (p=0.014, t81=-2.513, 95%CL) and the UK (p=0.002, t81=3.266, 95% CL). Germany was proven to not be significantly different from Austria (P=0.392, t81=-0.861, 95%CL) (figure 4.3.3). Figure 4.3.2: The number of bumblebees per landscape. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.153, p=0.002, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.1: The number of bumblebees per sample round. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.394, p=0.001, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.3: The mean number of bumblebees per country, error bars represents  ± 1 SE. The number of other bees (bees that were not honeybee or bumblebees) were taken and used in a mixed effect generalised linear model (glmmPQL). The model was initially run with the random factors of country and site. The standard deviation for country was 0.968 Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Local Environment Europe The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. Bees have an important ecological role; they are insect pollinators providing a crucial service. Without insect pollination human diet would be very different to how we know it now. Declines in pollinators have been reported and by attempting to understand the how the local environment affects bee abundance and diversity it may be possible to prevent any further decline. Samples were collected at six sites across Europe in each site there was a disturbed landscape and a natural landscape and within each of these a hot and a cold area. Samples were collected, pinned and identified to genera and the Halictus measured. Analysis found that there was no significant difference in size between different countries, landscape and temperature. The number of individuals and the number of genera did not significantly differ between temperature, landscape and country however on a smaller country level there were differences in the numbers of individuals and genera at different landscapes. The number of bumblebees was affected by the landscape with more individuals found in the disturbed landscapes; it is possible that due to the foraging ability and feeding preferences that bumblebees are able to gain an advantage in a disturbed landscape. Different genera were found in different regions with high numbers of Panurgus and Panurginus found in Spain and Catalunya. The number of bumblebees was also found to be significantly related to latitude. These differences in composition in different areas could be seriously affected in the face of climate change. The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. 1: Background and importance â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.† Albert Einstein 1.1: The importance of bees Bees provide the critical ecosystem service of pollination (Kearns et al 1998). Insect pollination is essential for our life as we know it. 84% of crops in the EU depend on insect pollination (Williams 1994) and one third of our diet can be attributed to insect pollination, either directly or indirectly (McGregor 1976). Of the insect pollinators it is bees which provide the most pollination, bees which are highly adapted to flower visitation, have been confirmed to be pollinators for 72.7% of crop species and it is thought they could be responsible for the pollination of another 10.2% (Williams 1994, Roubik 1995). Declines in bees point towards serious consequences for natural ecosystem process and agricultural processes (Biesmeijer et al 2006). The declines being experienced on local and regional scales present a worrying situation with habitat loss, fragmentation, agricultural intensification and pesticide use causing declines in honey bees, solitary bees, wild bees and bumble bees (Steffan-Dewenter et al 2005). The greatest diversity of bees in the world is experienced in arid and semi-arid regions of the world including the Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe (Danforth 2007). Most of the bees in the world are solitary bees (National Research Council of the National Academies 2007) and of the solitary bees the majority of them are resource specialists, oligolectic (Wcislo and Cane 1996). Oligolectics are bee species which collect pollen from one genus or species but can collect nectar from a variety of plants, they are often referred to as specialists. Polylectic bee species are generalists; they can collect pollen from a variety of flowering plants and include the honeybee (Apis) and the bumblebee (Bombus). In theory the risk of extinction is elevated in oligolectic bees as their presence and distribution is limited by just one floral host (Zayed and Packer 2007). Work by Cane et al (2006) into urban habitat fragmentation showed the abundance and richness of oligolectic bees to have declined but not to have declined in the polylectic bees. Due to the important role of bees it is essential to understand the abundance and diversity of bees across the landscape and the local factors that affect them. By understanding the local factors affecting the diversity and abundance of bees it may be possible to effectively manage and conserve bees and help to prevent any further declines in diversity and abundance. 1.2: Landscape Much of the natural habitat in Europe has been lost and the habitats with the highest species richness are the remaining semi-natural areas (Pimentel et al 1992). The impact of disturbance on insect communities is not so extensively studied as the impact on vegetation, on the studies that are available results show that different insect groups respond differently to disturbance (Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke 2003). Study by Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke (2003) on the effect of habitat management and landscape on bees and wasps in orchards in Europe showed that the vegetation was more significantly affected by the management practices than the insects. Bee species richness is correlated with the percentage of grassland in the surrounding landscape (Dauber et al 2003, Hendrickx et al 2007, Steffan-Dewenter et al 2002). The bees in the study by Hendrickx et al (2007) showed not only a decline with distance from semi-natural patches but also a decline with increasing management practices. The other groups in the study experienced increased numbers with proximity to semi-natural habitat but no significant declines with increasing agricultural management. The results for bees can be attributed due to bees having such a strong dependence on floral resources (Tscharntke et al 1998). Low plant diversity with limited floral resources may not to be able to support a high diversity of insects thus resulting in lower insect diversity and the ability to support only the generalist species (Westphal et al 2003). Proximity to floral resources and nesting sites is important as foraging distances can be fairly small. Large bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris can forage distances up to 3000m, as foraging distances are related to body size, smaller bees may only be able to forage a few metres (Westphal et al 2006). In the tropical forests of Costa Rica pasture management and the floral resources showed to have no significant impact on the diversity or abundance of bees, however deforested countryside just metres away from the forest contained a different community composition (Brosi et al 2006). The complexity of landscapes means that the impact of disturbance can vary depending on the frequency, intensity and extent of the disturbance (Samways 2005). Moderate disturbance can actually increase the diversity of the area by opening up areas for colonisation by providing ecological niches and opportunities for rarer species (Caswell 1976, Connell 1978, Petraitis et al 1989). Alternately diversity could be lowered as the dominance of opportunistic species is increased (Margalef 1968). Bees depend on floral resources for nectar and pollen and can only travel certain distances from their nesting site to reach it, both flowers and nests need to be close by. Therefore declining floral resources, and declining suitable nest sites, as experienced in large scale disturbed areas, may result in the declining numbers and diversity of bees. 1.3: Microclimate- temperature The microclimate, the lowest two metres of the atmosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 1992), is the layer of the atmosphere where the majority of plants and animals live (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The soil surface (or other substance, for example forest or concrete) influences the heat and moisture budget of the surrounding atmosphere producing localised variations in the climatic conditions, for example temperature, windspeed and humidity. The relationship between plant and microclimate is a close one with plants affecting the climatic conditions around them and the microclimate affects the factors controlling the functioning of the plant including the availability of the products required for photosynthesis. Insects benefit from this interaction and due to the close mutalistic relationship between some plant and insect species, for example plants and pollinators, are dependent on a healthy relationship between microclimate and plants. An unsuitable microclimate will lead to the deterioration of plant life and eventual death of the plant and insects dependent on it. 1.4: Insects, temperature and body size In many insects body temperature is essential in order to gain flight. An insect needs to gain enough energy to fly; it needs to raise the thoracic temperature above the temperature of the environment (Bishop and Armbruster 1999) this can be achieved by basking and endothermy (producing heat in the muscles) (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The size of the insect plays a vital role in the ability to heat up and subsequently fly and forage. A study by Casey and Joos (1983) found that the proportion of heat lost from the thorax per time unit decreases as the body mass of the insect increases, therefore larger insects are slower at gaining and loosing heat. Bishop and Armbruster (1999) also concluded that the ability to raise temperature in order to fly increases with body size making bumblebees better thermoregulators than solitary bees. Even when looking at solitary bees larger solitary bees will be better at thermoregulation than smaller solitary bees. Foraging activity can be restricted by thermoregulation factors (Heinrich 1974) and not just over winter. In the summer months foraging at high latitudes and higher temperatures may prove to be difficult for larger insects with solitary bees reaping the floral rewards. Whilst in cooler areas at lower latitudes larger bees, such as bumblebees will have the advantage (Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Tropical bumblebees have been found to be the largest bees, an exception to the rest of the findings by Peat et al (2205). They found that the mean size of bumblebees varies between different climates with colder climates having a larger mean size than those of warmer climates. Size variation of bumblebees within a region was found not to be related to temperature but other factors, possibly to improve colony foraging with different sizes able to visit different flowers (Peat et al 2005). It is not just at different temperatures, different latitudes and different elevations that there are heat constraints on the species present but also a daily sequence. Heinrich (1976) observed bees visiting flower patches and noted the day sequence process. Large insects, such as large bumblebees, are able to achieve a body temperature high enough to fly at a lower temperature than a smaller insect, for example a small solitary bee. This then means that earlier in the day the bumblebee can begin to forage and last longer into the evening when the temperature of the environment begins to fall. However in the midday heat the bumblebee may become overheated and need to retreat and cease flying for a few hours. The small solitary bee although not able to start until later and unable to continue into the evening will be able to cope in the midday heat and continue to forage (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The temperature of the area determines the foraging activity of bees and will influence the bees present in the area. What is under-researched is the effect of very localised temperature has on the bees and size of bees present. 1.5: Climate The temperature of the environment does not only determine the body temperature of the insect but also the geographical range (Gates 1993). Over the past 30years shifts in the abundance and distribution of a variety of species have been witnessed due to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). Hickling et al (2006) studied the distributions of different taxonomic groups in Britain over the last 25years to examine any shifts in range that may have occurred. A shift in distribution upwards and northwards was found in most taxonomic groups with the latitude being a more significant factor than elevation. Alterations to geographic ranges will impact different organisms in different ways and at different times in their lifecycle. It is possible that the interactions between organisms could be severely affected and possibly even destroyed, in some instances resulting in the extinction of one or both of the species. With these shifts in distributions comes the increased possibility of species extinctions, one prediction for 2050 using a mid-range climate scenario showed 15-37% of species committed to extinction (Thomas et al 2004). In order to avoid the risk of extinction species will have to be able to keep up with the changing climate by migrating at fast enough rates however barriers such as mountains and fragmented, disturbed landscapes may hinder this migration (Pearson and Dawson 2003). General climate models which observe the possible consequences of climate change show a general pattern of the increasing of the Mediterranean summer drought (Gates 1993). As a result it is expected that a shift in species composition will occur and drought conditions will lead to reduced plant cover. This will inevitably impact many insect species including pollinators, such as bees, that will lose their source of nectar and pollen. Research suggests that resource specialists are likely to be the first to suffer declines as they rely on just one plant for their pollen (Cane et al 2006). Looking at the effect of local temperatures on abundance and richness may be able to give an indication of what will follow with global climate change and thus be an aid for planning and conservation measures. 2: Aims and Objectives Bees are essential for pollination and are the key to maintaining life as we know it. Reaching and maintaining the right temperature is essential for an insect’s flight, there is evidence that reaching this temperature is related to body size but does it vary with temperature within a microclimate? Does the local temperature affect the bee diversity and abundance and will this provide any insights into what may happen in the face of global climate change? Within Europe it has been reported that it is the remaining semi-natural habitats that contain the most species richness. If this is the case it would be expected that areas of human disturbance would experience a much lower diversity and abundance. In this project the aim is to examine the effect that the local conditions, temperature and landscape, have on the abundance and genera of bees in a selection of regions across Europe. Within this there are three main objectives to be examined: To determine if the local temperature affects the abundance and diversity of bees. To determine if the surrounding landscape, disturbed or natural, affects the diversity and abundance of bees. To establish whether the size of certain genera are significantly affected by the local environment. 3: Methodology 3.1: Site selection Samples of pollinators were collected in field sites throughout Europe in the summer of 2007 as part of the CITIRAT (Climate Interactions with Terrestrial plant Interactions a Risk Assessment Tool) project. The CITIRAT project is part of the wider EU ALARM (Assessing LArge scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project (http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/). The field sites for the CITIRAT project were pre-determined by ALARM, with the core sites situated in different regions throughout Europe allowing the study of most of the climatic regions in Europe. For each of the core sites there are two sites measuring 4km by 4km within 50km of each other. One of the two sites being predominantly natural or semi-natural and the other site a disturbed landscape. The two focal sites have being selected so that the geological and environmental parameters are as similar as possible allowing the human disturbance to be the most distinguishing features between the sites. Figure 3.1.1 shows examples of the land cover in each category. Table 3.1.1: An example of the classification of disturbed and natural sites, categories taken from the level 3 CORINE 2000 land cover classification. Disturbed Non-irrigated arable land, pastures, discontinuous urban fabric, complex cultivation procedures, fruit trees and berry plantations, agro-forestry areas, olive groves, permanently irrigated land. Natural/semi-natural Mixed forest, coniferous forest, broadleaved forest, transitional woodland-scrub, sclerophyllous vegetation, natural grasslands. Using GIS analysis the temperature for each of the disturbed and natural areas was calculated using a model which combined the elevation, slope, aspect, average daytime temperature, clear sky solar radiation maps. This model then gave the temperatures for points throughout the landscape, the hottest 10% and coldest 10% of points were selected and ranked, the top two temperature points for both hot and cold were then determined and ready for fieldwork to begin. 3.2: Sampling method Each of the two landscapes (disturbed and natural) had two sampling rounds approximately 2 weeks apart. Within each sampling round two hot and two cold temperature sites were used (as predetermined by the GIS analysis). Each temperature spot had three cluster sets of pan traps, one white, one yellow and one blue. Each cluster contained five pan traps of a single colour. Each cluster was situated five metres apart in open, low vegetation at ground level. The pan traps were left out over a two day period in dry conditions with low wind and a temperature of greater than 15 ºC. Leaving pan traps out over a two day period eradicated any daily variation in bee species present due to daily temperature fluctuations. By using all three coloured pan traps bias was reduced as a range of colour preferences could be catered for (Leong and Thorp 1999). When the samples, preserved in alcohol, were returned to Leeds the samples were sorted taking note of the number of honeybees, number of bumble bees, number of other bees, number of hoverflies and the number of butterflies. Anything else that was collected in traps was discarded. The bumblebees and other bees were removed from the sample tubes, and were dried, pinned and labelled. The bees were then identified to genus level and the results recorded. Figure 3.3.1: Map of Europe showing the ALARM core sites. The yellow dots indicate the sites used in this analysis and their ‘country’ label. Adapted from an image available at: http://www.alarmproject.net. 3.3: Analytical method Samples were collected at sites all across Europe. Time and resource restraints meant that not all of the sites sampled could be pinned and identified for use in this study. The sites used were carefully selected with sites showing high variation in elevation and therefore temperature differences chosen. Figure 3.3.1 shows the European sites used in this project and table 3.3.1 shows the latitude and longitude of the sites. From here on these ‘sites’ will be called countries to avoid confusion. Table 3.3.1: Sites used with the latitude and Longitude Country Landscape Latitude Longitude Austria Disturbed 47.5205 14.1432 Austria Natural 48.0125 15.1620 Catalunya Disturbed 41.2620 1.7714 Catalunya Natural 41.2526 1.9006 Germany Disturbed 51.5491 9.7754 Germany Natural 51.4540 12.9410 Italy Disturbed 45.6202 12.4526 Italy Natural 45.7775 12.6088 Spain Disturbed 39.3153 -4.0661 Spain Natural 39.4133 -4.0650 UK Disturbed 51.5082 -1.5310 UK Natural 51.7650 -0.4585 To calculate the diversity for each of the conditions at each of the sites the Simpson’s diversity index, which is â€Å"one of the most meaningful and robust diversity measures†(Magurran 2004) was used. The index works by calculating the probability, that from a community of infinite size, two individuals will belong to the same species. The Simpson diversity index was expressed as 1-D therefore meaning that as the Simpson’s diversity decreases as does the diversity, this logical adaptation of the index mean that the diversity of the samples could easily be calculated and compared. In order to determine if the size of bees are affected by the local conditions one genus, Halictus was chosen due to them making up a large proportion of total individuals present. To measure the Halictus samples a random number table was used to determine which specimens should be measured. All of the specimens were females and from two countries, Spain and Germany. Digital callipers were used under a microscope to measure the width of the thorax, in-between the base of the wings. The numbers of Bombus’ were looked at as well as the size of the Halictus. Bombus’ are known to be (generally) a larger body size and better thermoregulators so provide a good genus to use as an indication of distribution related to the local environment factors. The information available for use in the statistical analysis was the number of individuals, the number of genera, the temperature (hot or cold), the landscape (disturbed or natural), the country, the sample round (1 or 2), the site (either 1 or 2), the diversity (Simpson’s 1-D), the number of bumblebees, the number of solitary bees and for a selection of sites the size of Halictus. The statistical analysis was carried out using R and Minitab for the principal component analysis. Excel was used for the production of some of the graphics. Not all the data was normally distributed, distributions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis used was a mixed effects model but not all data meet the assumptions so where unavoidable non-parametric tests were used, a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL). 4: Results Nineteen Genera were identified; a list of these genera and authorities can be viewed in the appendix A. One genus could not be confirmed despite various opinions but is suspected that it might be Panurginus. 4.1: Individuals and genera Figure 4.1.1: The mean number of individuals per sample round, error bars indicate  ±1 SE. (t66= -5.804, p= A mixed effects model was used for the analysis of the individuals. The random effects were site, landscape and country. The standard deviation estimate for country was 0.528 showing that for the countries there was a variation from the mean, this may affect the outcome of the model. The only significant factor was sample round (t66=-6.456, p= There were no significant differences in individuals within temperature, landscape, sample round or any of the interaction terms. To alleviate the problem of countries having a great variation in the numbers of individuals the model was rerun with countries as a fixed factor. This reduced the variation of the random effects and recalculated the fixed effects. Sample round remained the only significant factor (t66= 5.804, p= The dataset for genera was non-parametric so the model used was the glmmPQL. A very low standard deviation estimate was given for each of the random factors (country= 4.2: Diversity The generalised mix effects model for diversity used Simpson’s 1-D values. The estimates of standard deviation for the random effect of country were extremely low, Figure 4.1.2: The mean diversity (Simpson’s 1-D) for each country. Error bars indicate  ± 1 SE. The diversity was not significantly for any of the factors, Standard deviation between countries was low at 4.3: Bumblebees and other bees The numbers of bumblebees (Bombus spp) were used in a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL) in order to determine if there were significant differences in the variation between temperature, landscape and sample round. The standard deviation of country was high at 1.376 showing that within the effect of country there was a lot of variation from the mean, thus contributing to the variation in bumblebees and possibly influencing the overall model. Of the fixed factors sample round and landscape were shown to be significant. Bumblebee numbers were significantly different for sample round (t79=-3.59, p=0.001, 95%CL) and landscape (t76= -3.314, p=0.001, 95%CL). Rerunning the model with country as a fixed factor changed the results. The standard deviation of the site was low at 81= -3.153, 95%CL), sample round (p=0.001, t81 = -3.394,) and also several countries were significantly different from the control country which was Austria. Catalunya (p=0.001, t81=-3.488, 95% CL), Italy (p=0.043, t81=-2.060, 95%CL), Spain (p=0.014, t81=-2.513, 95%CL) and the UK (p=0.002, t81=3.266, 95% CL). Germany was proven to not be significantly different from Austria (P=0.392, t81=-0.861, 95%CL) (figure 4.3.3). Figure 4.3.2: The number of bumblebees per landscape. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.153, p=0.002, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.1: The number of bumblebees per sample round. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.394, p=0.001, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.3: The mean number of bumblebees per country, error bars represents  ± 1 SE. The number of other bees (bees that were not honeybee or bumblebees) were taken and used in a mixed effect generalised linear model (glmmPQL). The model was initially run with the random factors of country and site. The standard deviation for country was 0.968