Euthanasia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 7

Euthanasia - Essay Example Voluntary euthanasia occurs when the patient requests to be killed while non-voluntary euthanasia occurs when the killed patient did not consent to the killing. Assisted suicide can also be classified as euthanasia when an individual provides information and guides the patient in committing suicide. Euthanasia by action occurs when individual actions like providing lethal injection leads to the patient’s death while Euthanasia by omission occurs when the care giver withholds important care such as provision of food, water and medication thus leading to the death of the patient (Tulloch, 1999 p 34). However, for an act or omission to qualify as euthanasia, the said act or omission should be intended to cause death to the terminally ill patient. The issue of euthanasia has attracted intensive debate with proponents asserting that euthanasia should be legalized since it eliminates patient’s sufferings. The opponents of euthanasia assert that euthanasia is a rejection of the value of human life (Tulloch, 1999 p 35). Proponents of euthanasia assert that allowing people to die with dignity and avoiding the terminal illness is good in eliminating human suffering. The Beneficence argument for euthanasia claims that terminally ill patients should be prevented from dying painfully and slowly by allowing euthanasia (Buse, 2008 p 7). Continued extraordinary care will stress the immediate loved ones since it just prolongs the death of the terminally ill patient. They assert that many terminally illness patients should have the right to choose when to die and avoid the terminal suffering. According to the argument of mercy, allowing the terminally ill patients to continue suffering is inhumane and cruel. The life of terminally ill patients should be ended through lethal injection in order to avoid suffering and pain associated with the extraordinary medication (Buse, 2008 p 8). Proponents also assert

Pilinut Essay Example for Free

Pilinut Essay Our company engages into pilinut business. Pili tart is a very profitable product, it has the so called 3C’s of Bicol pili nut: Competitive (market); Capability (financial); and Capacity (production) (Melchor A Aguilar). Because the Philippines is the only country where the fruit has market. No other country process pili in commercial quantity, meaning, we have the monopoly of processed pili in the foreign market, this kind of business has a very high potential of being successful especially if it will engage in exporting. There are many producers and processors of pili tart in the Bicol region, but this will be very few compared to the world market. Only few of these processors are into exporting business. Pili are very nutritious even as confection. Nutritionally, the kernel is high in calcium, phosphorous, and potassium, and rich in fats and protein. (DOST), so there is no issue to health concious. Our products will be of superior quality associated with the right price so that almost every body can afford it. We will produce product using ingredients of high quality so that it is guaranteed to be tasty and delicious. We will provide products that are not health and environmental hazard but instead a pilinut product that everyone can enjoy and environmental friendly that undergo in the right procedure. We will produce different pilinut products that are best for export, which does not easily spoil, and remain fresh even on long period of time. Pilinut for ordinary people may not be so important, but for a business person like us, pilinut has a long way to go and has a very large market to serve. Profit from this business may be abundant due to the monopoly of the products. We can start at a small capital but the comeback will be great. In not more than three years, we will regain our investment from this business and still continue to grow.

Causes of State Failure in Sub-Saharan Africa

Causes of State Failure in Sub-Saharan Africa Abstract This project sets out to examine the causes of the failure of the state in sub-Saharan Africa. Since the introduction of democracy in the sub-continent in the early 1990’s, the process has been a slow and cumbersome, casting doubts on the possibility of instituting genuine democracy on the sub-continent. The political crisis gave room for autocrats who were the fomenters of the problem to eternalize themselves in power in the name of avoiding further conflicts or problems. They have advanced a whole range of different problems as the cause of this crisis where as the problem lies in the absence of a democratic culture or the proper understanding of it. In the words of the great Africanist, the late Professor Ake Claude, the sub-continents problems is but one of leadership crisis. As this dawns on us at a moment when democratic regimes are a necessity in the new global context, how do we solve the problems which have stalled the institution this much cherished democracy? The answer the thesis states lies in the institutionalization of democracy. Introduction The quest for good governments in Africa has been a high priority item on the agenda of African and world politicians for well over half a century. The African continent for several decades now has been replete with ills such as low living standards, a stagnant economy, and high rates of unemployment, poverty, low infrastructural development, a violent political environment, dictatorships, ethnic clashes and above all a general disregard of the fundamental rights of the people. It still grapples with these political uncertainties, economic adversities, and social inequalities today (Chazan, 1999). There is thus a need to device the best means possible by which the state can be organized and empowered so that it deals adequately with these problems. Democracy’s ability to organize society, ensuring the respect of the rights and liberties of the people, pressing for accountable leadership, ensuring effective participation, a transparent economy and a just and equitable social order, in essence ensuring the socio-economic and political prosperity of a nation, which in summary are Africa’s biggest problems, makes it the best possible solution to the problems Africa faces today. As a result, the quest for democracy in Africa has been seen as vital if Africa has to set up a harmonized community that will develop and catch up with the demands of the ever globalizing world. The story of instituting democracy in Sub-Saharan Africa has been a long drawn one, with many highs and lows; several events have made it seem very probable and promising, but also there have been on the other hand other very challenging events which have questioned the possibility of democracy’s survival. As a result, several debates have ensued amongst Africanist, who have focused on a large part on the prospects of democracy on the continent, some arguing that it is doomed to fail and other optimist who believe that a genuine democratic system can and will emerge in sub-Saharan Africa. Their focus therefore have been how democracy can be properly instituted, its challenges and how the inherent problems it faces can be adequately resolved so that Africa will benefit from good governance schemes. There have been several events starting with the legalization of political parties and the return to multiparty elections in the late 1980’s which suggested that democracy was well under way on the continent. But as it was being instituted it faced several challenges which resorted to disorderliness throwing back the move to democracy; new forms of electoral authoritarianism, return to military and in some extreme cases gruesome civil wars broke out on the sub-continent. This has left many critics of African democracy to question the possibility of instituting genuine democracy on the continent, despite it being the choice of the people. Apologist of African democracy have since argued that Africa’s political crisis were as a result of an imposition of a western culture or style of administration which is not compatible with the African society. They consider democracy alien and in violation to the African culture (Ake, 1991). This according to them has been the reason for the failure of democracy. They rather support the one party dictatorial style governance, which they claim is the best means by which the continent can unite to develop (Busia, 1961). Another school of thought which emerged after the transition period, the modernist, advanced reasons for the failure of democracy in Africa, blaming the superficial nature of the state, and its failure to penetrate the African society adequately, calling the state a weak leviathan (Chabal Daloz, 1999). This same school and notably Patrick Chabal note that Africa’s economic crisis does not favor the successful implementation of democracy on the continent. Democracy he argues is underpinned by capitalism, a uniquely dynamic and productive system, in its absence therefore there is doubt that democracy can be successfully instituted on the African sub-continent. This view has also supported the point that democracy is an imposition on Africa and thus will always fail the aspirations of those who seek to implement it on the continent. This thesis therefore sets out to answer some of this cynicism and provide a possible solution for the problems democracy in the African sub-continent faces. If anything democracy has not failed Africa, but Africa as shown by the poor actions of its leader, has failed to grasp the concept of democracy. It sets out trying to systematically bring out how through its political evolution, it is the failure to properly institute democracy during the second wave democratization process which has brought about the political crisis the sub-continent is facing. Secondly if neo-patrimonialism exists and survives today it is because leaders have twisted democratic tenets to suit their whims and caprices, thus legitimizing such authoritative regimes. The set backs it faced during the mid-1990 did not spell doom for democracy, but rather served as an eye opener for Africa. â€Å"The democratic struggle is a gradual process which will emerge from experience and improvisation as it continues to struggle† states professor Claude Ake, who believes that Africa’s experience will develop the best suited type of democracy that will solve its problems (Ake, 1993). Democracy can survive in Africa, but the players and fomenters must take several factors into consideration, like picking up more democratic ethics and tenets and developing a strong united civil society, showing more good will and respect towards their people and the state as opposed to the selfish and greedy attitude which has been noted to be the norm on the sub-continent. With time as adequate steps like institutionalization and consolidation are taken, democracy will be a success story in Africa. This view is also supported by Larry Diamond, who stated inter alia â€Å"†¦ if progress is to be made towards developing democratic governance, it is likely to be gradual messy, fitful and slow, with many imperfections along the way† (Diamond, 1989, p.24). Thus this piece looks at how these imperfections were created and how certain responses will set the sub-continent on track to democratic governance. This thesis starts off by looking at the development of democracy on the African sub-continent in the 1990’s. Chapter one will therefore start off looking at why the third wave started, how it happened and why it was believed to have been the new way for Africa. The case of post independent African politics was very elusive of the masses. The one party patrimonial state had proven to be disastrous, the military regimes which later emerged, preaching immediate growth and development also failed the aspirations of the people and so there was a general move by the people towards democracy. This was in addition to the external pressures that existed at the moment. Thus there was a general surge towards democratic elections in the sub continent, with several parties legalized and the political life of the sub-continent in different countries. Chapter two looks at the break down in the drive towards democracy. Why the democratic frenzy was short lived, only registering limited success across Sub-Saharan Africa. As the concepts of multiparty elections were applied across the sub continent, there were different outcomes with each case being very unique to the different nations. Generally democracy failed to take root. It was cosmetic and a virtual democracy as described by Richard Joseph. It will consider the reasons why this was the case. Given that almost all the countries in the sub-continent held elections of different kinds, did this imply they were all democracies? We will look at the new classifications of African regimes. Considering that they were all at this point considered transitionary. Chapter three starts off by considering the complex nature of democracy. It brings out a list of factors which qualify a state as a democracy or not. It then looks at the regimes on the sub-continent and categorizes them per the 2006 Freedom House Review. These are democracies (11), Hybrid regimes (23) and autocracies (14). Since our focus is on the failing state we shall look at the commonalities and differences between the hybrid and failed/unreformed regimes. In that light we shall bring out the common or popular concern for democracy in Africa which is the misconception democracy suffers and the need for institutionalization. Chapter four now looks at the problems African democracies have faced since inception. Considering the very broad nature and tone the thesis has taken this far, it will consider a case study on the Republic of Cameroon, a country in the Central African region of Africa, which has failed to properly institute democracy till date. It is considered an electoral autocracy and serves as a perfect example of how Africa, fails democracy. The problems this state faces are in effect what most of the states of the Sub-Saharan region face, certain outcomes may differ, but essentially the issues or problems are the same. This study will provide the perfect opportunity of putting into context all the issues that I have raised this far to buttress the point of the thesis, which is that it is the failure to fully understand and properly grasp the concept of democracy that has caused democracy to fail in this country and the sub-continent as a whole. These areas include the formation of political parties, to the electoral process, the narrow political field, constrained civil society, absence of civility, politicized violence and the international support for dictatorships. These points were adequately discussed by Professor Celestin Monga. Chapter five shall be the conclusion to this project in which we shall be looking at possible solutions to the problems raised above. It shall first suggest solutions to the problems duly raised and also consider effective institutionalization through the strengthening of the three tiers of government namely the executive, legislative and judiciary; so that there is a balance in power amongst these three. By applying these solutions in the Cameroonian context and eventually on the sub-continent, the African sub-continent will be brought closer to the mark of consolidated democracies. The Rebirth of Democracy (1990-1993) The period 1989-1993 was considered to be the break point for Africa. This is the period during which Africa witnessed a wave of regime changes. Hitherto to this period, single party, military regimes and presidents for life was the norm in most African states. Competitive politics was considered a luxury by most African leaders who stated that it was neither necessary nor affordable for Africans (Decalo, 1992). This belief was aptly described in the words of Sierra Leonean president at the time Siaka Stevens when he said of democracy and I quote ‘†¦it is a system of institutionalized tribal ethnic quiquennial warfare euphemistically known as elections which is an open invitation to anarchy and disunity’ (Decalo, 1992) a view which was endorsed by Tanzania’s Julius Nyerere who also stated that democracy was stronger with a one party state rule which unified the country. To back up this system of administration, it was claimed that Africa had its own unique history and tradition thus the introduction of democracy was a violation of the integrity of the African culture (Ake, 1991). The African traditional system in its own right, they further argued, was infused with democracy with standards of accountability considered to be stricter than the west, though invariably patrimonial, thus it possessed signs of a democracy-hence a democracy (Ake, 1991). A second argument put forward was the social composition of African states. Because of its plural nature, the introduction of liberal democracy could possibly inflame ethnic rivalries which will result in political disintegration. Democracy they argued was a distraction to what was important for society. It was a thing for elites and the educated masses and ended on paper, it did not provide or cater for the pressing needs of the rural masses. This one party protagonist’s concluded that a patrimonial system was going to unite and direct all positive energy towards economic development (Ake, 1991). Thus African style democracy as it came to be termed of one party politics was considered the best option for Africa given its complex social context, endorsed by most Western governments as shown by their cooperation with them. This ideology was even backed in cases by the World Bank as noted by their remark that â€Å"†¦with weak states, only a bureaucratic authoritarian regime could contain fissiparous tensions and lead to a free market economy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Decalo, 1992). Africans believed so much in this style of administration Samuel Decalo talks of Mugabe during a state visit to the United States of America in the 80’s, who recommended to the American congress, the one party state system as an option they should consider (Decalo, 1992). A point to note here is the hypocrisy of this political ideology. Despite preaching governments of national unity and socio-economic development, the opposite was being practiced and witnessed in most countries. The presidency and administration became the possession of whatever ethnic group held the presidency. Nepotism was rife and groups were rather occupied with gaining a greater share of the existing pie than working for equitable development (Decalo, 1992). This political practice as a result accentuated the tribal and ethnic divide which existed within the many African states and fuelled anti-government sentiments amongst the population as we shall see below. A change to this political scenario though requisite, was least expected to occur by scholars, in a continent which had shown signs of defiance to a more liberal democracy by sticking to its own developed and formulated ideology of ‘Afro-Marxism’ (Decalo, 1992). There were strong calls both from within and without for a change to the system that was failing to provide adequately for their needs. This saw mass demonstrations, rallies and civil disobedience all calling for the return of democracy and for regime change. This was spawned by the stifling political authoritarianism and economic decay, further triggered by the spectacle of the fall of titans in East Europe (Decalo, 1992). The one party state had yielded a form of presidential authoritarianism, through which the state economy was plundered, there was a disdain for civic and human rights, and little or no attention was paid to the plight of the rural population (Decalo, 1992). Economic projects were failing to materialize; there was the absence of infrastructural development needed for this growth and above all a high rate of unemployment. The military regimes which took over power in certain instances to sweep clean the state failed to return power back to civilian rule and fell into the same predicament by falling short of the efficiency mark. These regimes were thus fundamentally unaccountable, personalized and patrimonial (Decalo, 1992). There were the failures of these regimes that could be considered the primary cause of the call to democracy and multipartyism. The growing urbanization and education of Africans made sensitive to the hostile political and economic environment being created by their leaders, thus they desired liberty and the respect of their rights which had been usurped and abused by this dictatorial one party system. They wanted their grievances listened to and solved by a regime that had been removed from the people, blind and deaf to their problems. The only way to do this was by mass protest against such regimes and seeking to over throw them. Economic related reasons, mainly externally influenced, could be said to be the greatest factors which led to this drive in re-democratization. Africa relied for a large part on international aid and loans to fund most of its activities. The administrative sector was the biggest employer in most countries, thus the money aid they received was used almost entirely on salary payments and carry out government businesses, rather than invest in lucrative businesses which could eventually pay back. Civil servants in the higher echelon were corrupt and embezzled these state funds to fund their luxurious lives. The growth registered within the economy was good but this was not sustainable growth and did not guarantee a future for the economy. Most corporations were state owned and private businesses were not promoted or were largely absent. As a result of all these, donor countries through the IMF and World Bank suggested certain adjustments be made with the governance system if they were to continue offering this aid and loans. This came to be known as the Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) which called for African governments to privatize state owned corporations, cut down on its public sector and above all to democratize as conditions to receive aid. This provided a lee way for the dissenting voices of nationals who wanted change. They were joined by civil servants who suffered huge pay cuts and in extreme cases lost their jobs. This situation was further aggravated by the fall in commodity prices in the international markets meaning that African states were pretty much at the mercy of international donors, who wanted change with the regimes. Finally the demise of communism and the end of the Cold War also had an immense impact on the political life of African states. First of all it diverted the attention of investors to the newly liberalized and potential economies of Eastern Europe, thus reducing the amount of capital investments which flowed to the continent, affecting the African economy adversely. Secondly the West no longer supported the dictatorial regimes in Africa as it did during the Cold War days. They withdrew support from these regimes (example of Angola and Togo where they had supported antagonized sectarian groups) asking them to democratize as a condition for continuous aid and loans (Decalo, 1992). This was especially true of France who had since independence maintained a close link with Francophone African states and signed several military accords with African states offering them (military) support when they needed it; the case of Central Africa and the support they offered Idriss Deby against Bedel Bokassa 1990, one authoritarian regime for another. The Apartheid regime of South Africa also did not receive any more support from the West, who had pursued half hearted sanctions against this repressive regime. As soon as the Cold War came to an end, the Apartheid regime under pressure yielded and released Mandela, introducing reforms, forcing other African states to follow suit, who had used this regime to propagate a repressive rule against their citizens. They were thus forced to change. The first shots of democracy in Africa were noted in Benin, when in early 1990, students, civil servants and the whole community took to the streets denouncing the rule of then president, Mathieu Kerekou and calling for what they termed â€Å"a national sovereign conference of all active forces† (Richard Joseph, 1991). This sovereign national conference was to bring together representatives of the different sectors and works of life in a voice of national unity to address the problems of society. In the case of Benin, it resulted in the removal of President Mathieu Kerekou’s control of public policy and the establishment of a transitional government (Richard Joseph, 1991). The outcome of this was received with much delight in other African states and they later began calling for national conferences in their respective countries. This was the case in Togo, Zaire, Congo, Gabon and Cameroon. The out come was not necessarily the same as in the case of Benin, because not all the presidents yielded to such demands, they resisted these popular calls and tried making substantive concessions to the opposition (Richard Joseph, 1991). All in all it marked the beginning of change on the continent as a result of popular demand (democratic will, the voice of the people). All this pressure resulted in the democratization of Africa as noted by the re-legalization of political parties, restored freedoms of association, assembly and expression and also in the reform of constitutions which led to multiparty elections in most sub-Saharan states (Richard Joseph, 1998). Over the brief period of 1990-1994, 54 competitive elections were held in 29 countries with 30 of the electoral outcomes welcomed by the electorates and the process ruled as free and fair by observers (Bratton, 1998). One party rule was noted to have been replaced with more open and participatory competitive democracy. With the influx of these political parties, they were quick at pointing out the short comings of government, its administrative inefficiency, political corruption, economic mismanagement, and social decay (El-Khawas, 2001). Notably between 1990 and 1993, twenty five countries held elections with eleven opposition parties winning and coming to power. Though very commendable, the legalization of opposition parties did not necessarily mean democracy for African countries (Diamond, 1994). Even those who saw regime change sooner than later faced crisis thus questioning the durability of democracy in Africa, because certain cracks were noted in the firmament of this nascent African democracy. Looking at the above, democracy was not brought about by conditions of the west, but rather it was the desire and commitment of the people for accountability and meaningful development from their respective governments, further fuelled by the economic conditions and effects of the SAP, which only came to show how poorly the state was being managed. On the contrary the west could be accused of complacency. As earlier mentioned they had supported these authoritative regimes and cooperated with them. Even after conditions were placed on leverage, they never followed them up or pressed this dictatorial regimes to democratize as in the case of Kenya, Cameroon and Togo just to name a few, to which the international community still offered loans and did not question the actions of these governments like human rights abuse, which drew a lot of criticism from the press and public (Ake, 1991). Therefore the call for democracy was only emboldened by economic factors which brought change at the time to some countries (Benin ousting of Kerekou, Liberia, fall of Samuel Doe) but failed to change regimes in others (Cameroon, Nigeria, Kenya) and can not be said to be the main factor but a mix of both (Ake, 1991). Chapter Three: The Democratic Dark Days Following this run of political liberalization was a period of political violence, wars and crisis in a number of African countries that sent ripples down the nascent democracy in Africa. A critical look at the outcome of the first set of elections organized in the sub-continent drew a lot of criticism from pundits who considered the process as cosmetic and as failing in its objectives. What seemed to have been created on the African sub-continent was a virtual democracy as noted by Richard Joseph (Richard Joseph, 1993). This could be explained by the fact that in a number of African states, the incumbents managed to hang on to power after elections in their states, despite the mass demonstrations against their administrations and rule. It is necessary to remind ourselves here of the popular support democracy enjoyed in the different African states; it was not an orchestration or ploy of an elitist few, but a genuine request by all for change, thus a lot was expected in the form of regime changes across the continent. Despite this, a few countries (11 of the 25 countries that held competitive elections during the period of 1992-1993) and notably Zambia and South Africa managed to see a democratic change in leadership (El-Khawas, 2001). Thus the much anticipated democracy in sub-Saharan Africa was failing to take root. Regimes failed to be changed in Cameroon, Gabon, Congo, Kenya and Ghana just to name a few, despite mass protest and popular support the opposition in these countries enjoyed. Elections were noted to be carried out in a politically tensed atmosphere, characterized by intimidation (house arrest and states of emergency), massive vote rigging and general violence. The experienced leaders with all the powers they wielded violated the rules of the country with impunity and after enjoying the booty they had siphoned from the economy, had every intention of staying in power and as a result did all to ensure their stay in power. ). As a matter of fact, the biblical adage of old wine in new wine skins held true here since there seemed to be nothing new to the political order in a number of states that witnessed elections. The story of ousted leaders on the continent during the military coup days of the 1960’s had not been an envious one; as such they would do anything to preserve power in the event where they had been very reckless with power (Young, 1996; De Walle, 2001). This is what Professor Ake Claude termed the leadership crisis of the continent; according to the professor the African political crisis resulted from the absence of true statesmen, but rather the prominence of those with every intention of ensuring their stay in power or having their own share of the national cake (Ake, 1996). This assertion has been supported by Richard Joseph, who holds that a prebendal system is set up, with entrenched corruption, and the leaders work only for the benefit of themselves and their clients, leaving the locals to their own devices for survival (Joseph, 2003). As such, these leaders organized charades in the name of elections, given that they controlled the judiciary and legislative and with this centralization of power they were able to corner the multitude of opposition parties they had legalized as a disorganizing technique of the opposition (Young, 1996). As such despite their inefficiencies, the leaders found themselves in power with very vindictive policies against opposition strongholds. This was the case in Kenya, Cameroon, Gabon and Ivory Coast, where particular regions and tribes were subject to marginalization and vengeance of the leader. In Kenya, Arap Moi and his cohorts fomented tribal conflicts that led to the death of about 1500 and displaced a further 350,000 in the rift valley area, in Cameroon the Anglophone West Cameroon was massively under represented in the government that was formed following the presidential elections of 1992. Millions of dollars which were funds for other projects were misappropriated to ensure such electoral successes and thus their stay in power (Diamond, 2008; Young, 1996). These leaders were also noted by the international community as having been endorsed by the people, and as a result the West continued its support of these corrupt regimes with poor human right records, and with incumbents who had every intention to continue pillaging the economy as before. The situation generally speaking looked bleak for the African Sub-continent which had received the third wave with such enthusiasm. The democratic quest was dealt further blows when civil wars and genocides broke out in some of the sub-Saharan countries; there was a return of the military to power in others. This period is considered to be the dark moments of African political development. The Congo Basin has been noted as one of the main trouble spots on the continent owing to the manner in which the wars which emanated from this region spread across, affecting all the countries sharing borders. Zaire for starters was under the tight grip of the dictator Mobuto Sese Seko, who did not give into the pressures for democratization. He refused convening a national conference, blaming it on technicalities of representation owing to the ethnic diversity and broadness of Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo-DRC). Thus democracy did not effectively take root there, despite calls for the democratization by the masses. Armed conflicts broke out first in Burundi following the overthrow of the newly elected president Melchior Ndadaye, by Tutsi officers, trying to reinstate Tutsi control over the Tutsi dominated state. In neighboring Rwanda, the Hutu rule came to a halt when following elections in 1994 the Hutu president Juvenal Habyarimana had to form a coalition regime with the Tutsi minority, but was assassinated during the process, giving room to extremist Hutu’s to launch a genocidal raid against the Tutsi’s. These two wars led to the death and displacement of millions further enshrining the problems rocking this continent. The National Resistant Movement (NRM) initiated by Yoweri Museveni of Uganda, an arm movement against dictators in the Central-East of Africa and enjoying the support of western powers and international donors promoted more of the armed conflicts faced by this part of Africa. It supported rebels against the Kabila regime who had earlier ejected Mobuto from power in 1997 (following the wars in Rwanda which gave the rebels led by Kabila the impetus to fight Mobuto) following a fall out between the rebels and Kabila, leading to the Congo war lasting from 1998-2003 Young, 1996; Richard Joseph, 1998). The story of armed conflicts in the wake of an era of democratic elections is numerous on the African continent. One very interesting case to site here is that of Congo-Brazzaville, where democratic tides were considerably reversed following the forceful return to power by Denis Sassou-Nguesso who had earlier been defeated in elections in 1993 (Young, 1996). This was accomplished with the support of France and Angola in front of a dumb struck international community that only muttered on the events that were ravaging the continent. The Liberian and Sierra Leonean cases could also be sited, but given these it is good enough to make our analysis of the democratic struggle in Sub-Saharan continent. These crises resulted in the deaths of millions, refugee problems, food shortages and famines, poverty, a poor economy and low rate of development not only in countries involved, but affected the economy of other states in general as it stalled possible investments in this part of the world. International investors feared investing in a place which did not guarantee the safety of their businesses; they rather invested in the newly democratized states of West Europe. African investors themselves were fleeing with whatever capital they had; leading to massive capital flights and brain drain as whole families sought new places and beginnings. This far Africa was not providing a perfect home for Africans. If anything these moments looked to be supporting the claims of some African democratic skeptics and proponents of African socialism (and thus one party style democracy) that democracy let alone libe

James Joyces Araby - The Ironic Narrator of Araby Essay -- Joyce Dubl

The Ironic Narrator of "Araby" Although James Joyce's story "Araby" is told from the first per-son viewpoint of its young protagonist, we do not receive the impression that a boy tells the story. Instead, the narrator seems to be a man matured well beyond the experience of the story. The mature man reminisces about his youthful hopes, desires, and frustrations. More than if a boy's mind had reconstructed the events of the story for us, this particular way of telling the story enables us to perceive clearly the torment youth experiences when ideals, concerning both sacred and earthly love, are destroyed by a suddenly unclouded view of the actual world. Because the man, rather than the boy, recounts the experience, an ironic view can be presented of the institutions and persons surrounding the boy. This ironic view would be impossible for the immature, emotionally involved mind of the boy himself. Only an adult looking back at the high hopes of "foolish blood" and its resultant destruction could account for the iron ic viewpoint. Throughout the story, however, the narrator consistently maintains a full sensitivity to his youthful anguish. From first to last we sense the reality to him of his earlier idealistic dream of beauty. The opening paragraph, setting the scene, prepares us for the view we receive of the conflict between the loveliness of the ideal and the drabness of the actual. Descri... ...rious wares, is tended by uncaring people who leave him even more alone than he had been before; the young lady who should have waited on him ignores him to joke with two young men. The young lady’s inane remarks to the young men have a ring in the memory of the mature narrator reminiscent of his adored one's remarks. Both are concerned with the material, the crass. The narrator can, with his backward look, supply us with two apprehensions: one, the fully remembered, and thus fully felt, anguish of a too sudden realization of the disparity between a youthful dream of the mystic beauty of the world and his actual world; and two, the irony implicit in a view that can see the dream itself as a "vanity."

Illustrate the theme of isolation in “Of Mice and Men” by John Steinbeck Essay

In the novel â€Å"Of Mice and Men† which was set in the 1930’s I believe that John Steinbeck Illustrated loneliness and solitude in many places. The seclusion in those times was due to mainly discrimination and injustice. The life of a customary worker would be very difficult, therefore people worked for others on their farms. The wages were not proportional to the amount of labour and in addition the accommodation was barely habitable, this was unjust. The two focal characters George and Lennie have a sturdy bond and companionship. The other characters in the story are missing a true acquaintance and are envious of the two men. They have never before seen two men unite together like that before. All the other characters in the book are all abandoned and dejected apart from Slim. George and Lennie were wedged together through thick and thin, through good and bad and they knew they needed each other. This was revealed as George Said â€Å"Guys like us that live on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. † This meaning that if not for each other they would be like the others on the ranch, discontented and lonesome. The others on the ranch had recognised this, as their fellow workers said â€Å"Funny how you an’ him string together. † This had highlighted the unusualness of the situation and the migrant lifestyle of the 1930’s. While the whole ranch suffers from loneliness there are a few individual cases that are emphasised throughout the whole book. There are three main people in the book who suffer, Crooks, Candy and Curleys Wife. They all suffer injustice in the form of prejudice and discrimination. Candy was thought of as an outcast as he has no longer got the physical ability due to his age; and his physical disability does not help his cause. Candy had one true friend nevertheless, his dog. Once the dog was killed by Carlson, Candy was forced to seek friendship in another form. He knew that he was going to be given his marching orders shortly, as he said â€Å"they’ll call me purty soon. † While he was in the bunk house one day, he over heard George and Lennie talk about their lifelong dream. Candy decided to help George and Lennie accomplish their dreams. Candy had presented to facilitate in the form of money and manual labour. This was a move of desperation but worked as the two men accepted Candy’s offer. Candy basically tried to buy friendship, this does not always produce true friends. Crook’s a black man who faced isolation from the racist community. Crooks is not allowed to socially interact with others around him because of his colour which is similar to Lennie’s situation as Lennie was unable to interact with people due to his mental condition. Crook’s is restricted from doing customary things along side the white. He recognises how he has been treated and acts towards the white people who have affronted him how he himself is being treated. Crook’s is also an envious man. He is extremely resentful of George and Lennie’s tight friendship as Crook’s says to Lennie while in the barn together â€Å"well, s’pose, jus s’pose he don’t come back. What’ll you do then? † this was asked because Crook’s did not have any friends and did not know how it would feel to lose them unexpectedly. Knowing that Lennie was mentally ill, Crook’s decided to torture him because he wanted to ease some anger because he was discarded and unwanted by the others. Crook’s is so lonely and striving for a good life he will do anything to live peacefully.

12 Research Essay Topics on Apache Native Americans

12 Research Essay Topics on Apache Native Americans If you have to write a research essay on the Apache Native Americans, it is important to substantiate all of the information you present with evidence. It is for this reason that you will find twelve superb facts on Apache Native Americans below which can be used in your research essay writing. Remember that these should be used to support claims you make within the body of your writing: The Apache Native Americans were not immune to the conflicts between settlers and the U.S. Federal rules. These rules and the migration forced many native tribes out of their ancestral lands and onto reservations, a proposition which resulted in backlash at the start by many of the natives. Massacres broke out in response to westward expansion at Sand Creek in 1864 and again at Wounded Knee in 1890 between the United States Army and the Apache Native Americans. The Apache reside in the Southwest deserts, primarily in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico. Some Apache tribes were captured during the 1800’s and sent to live in Oklahoma, while others remained in New Mexico and Arizona. The Na’ishan are called the Plains Apache and they reside in what is today Oklahoma. This tribe is referred to as the Kiowa-Apaches because many of their customs are similar to the Kiowa allies more so than to the other native Apache tribes. They are still living there today. Today there are 30,000 Apache Native Americans living in the United States. There are 13 Apache tribes living in the United States. Five of the tribes are in Arizona, another five are in New Mexico, and the remaining three are in Oklahoma. Each of the tribes in Arizona and New Mexico has their own reservation. These are lands which are under complete control of the tribes. In Oklahoma, the tribes remain on trust land. Every tribe has many of the same laws, services, and government functions the same as a small country. While living under their own laws, police forces, government, and services, they are nonetheless considered U.S. citizens and required to obey American laws. Historically every Apache band was led by a chief, who was selected for the position by the tribal council. All of the important decisions which had to be made for the band were done so by way of the council. In such situations, each of the members of the council had to agree before any action could be made. In this sense the chief functions more as a chairman for the tribe rather than as a president and his job as to mediate between all members of the council. Today, these tribal councils are still used for the Apache tribes. Today the Apache Native Americans speak a native Apache tongue close to that of Navajo but they also speak English. The Apache language is one with many different vowel sounds and tones, which can be difficult for non-native speakers to pronounce. Apache Native American children will enjoy schooling, chores, and playing the same as other children. Historically, they would complete more chores and enjoy more play time on par with colonial children but today many children enjoy fishing and hunting with their fathers. Today the children enjoy archery games, learn how to ride horses, and have toys and dolls. The Apache women were tasked with taking care of the home which included taking care of their children and cooking, but extended to include the construction of new houses for the family whenever the tribe had to change their location. The girls learned how to ride horses and shoot the same as the boys, and in some cases the women of the tribe were able to defend the villages when an attack took place. Nonetheless, it was rare for Apache women to serve as warriors. The men were the warriors, the hunters, and the political leaders who could be appointed chief of the tribe. Both men and women were involved in traditional medicine, story-telling, art, and music. The Apache Native Americans resided in wickiups, which were small dwellings about the size of camping tents, which were constructed out of wood frames covered in brush matting and a buffalo tarp. These could be set up in as little as two hours if there existed enough brush in the new location. The reason for this is that the Apache beliefs require the homes to be burned down and rebuilt in cases where a family member dies. For this reason the structure remains simple and the construction quick. Those Apache residing in the Plains, or Oklahoma, used the tipis as their housing where were also covered in buffalo hide but were easier to heat and offered more space. Today the people reside in modern homes with very few tribal members residing in modernized wickiups. Those who still follow the Apache beliefs remain in the wickiups because they can be burned down while an apartment cannot. The Apache women would historically dress in dresses made of buckskin while the men would wear breechcloths and leather war shirts. After Mexican influence in the 1800’s the men began to wear white cotton pants and tunics while the women wore skirts and dresses in calico. The tribes would wear moccasins or moccasin boots for their feet. The dresses for ladies and warrior shirts for men were decorated with fringe and beads, many of which were symbolic. The Plains Apache tribes living in Oklahoma took after the Kiowas and wore the feather war bonnets. For ceremonies, special masks and head dresses made of wood were worn. The women wore their long hair down or in a bun, secured with a hair ornament called the nah-leens. The men would keep their hair at shoulder length, save for those in the Plains area. Both men and women would wear choker-style necklaces and shell jewelry and would paint their faces on religious, special, or festive occasions. These facts will definitely help you in writing a research essay. The story of Apache is very interesting, so you don’t need to worry that you’ll not have enough information for your paper. But if you want even more check out our 20 topics for a research essay on Apache Native Americans or look through out tips on how to write a research essay. Combining all this, you will write an excellent paper in college and university! References: Curtis, Edward S.  The North American Indian, Vol. 1. Quality Classics, 2013. Goodwin, Grenville.  The social organization of the Western Apache. University of Arizona Press, 1942. Jacobs, Sue-Ellen.  Two-spirit people: Native American gender identity, sexuality, and spirituality. University of Illinois Press, 1997. Kroeber, Alfred Louis.  Cultural and natural areas of native North America. Vol. 38. Univ of California Press, 1947. Lockwood, Frank C.  The Apache Indians. U of Nebraska Press, 1938. Merriwether, D. Andrew, Francisco Rothhammer, and Robert E. Ferrell. Distribution of the four founding lineage haplotypes in Native Americans suggests a single wave of migration for the New World.  American Journal of Physical Anthropology  98.4 (1995): 411-430. Nabokov, Peter.  Native American testimony: an anthology of Indian and White relations; first encounter to dispossession. Crowell, 1978.

Post Secondary Education for Adults Returning to Study Essay Example

Post Secondary Education for Adults Returning to Study Essay Example Post Secondary Education for Adults Returning to Study Essay Post Secondary Education for Adults Returning to Study Essay Essay Topic: Adults  ²f à ³Ãƒ ®urà ¥ n dult whà ®  ³s à ±Ãƒ ®ns ³dà ¥r ³ng post secondary à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®n nd gà ®Ã‚ ³ng bà ±k tà ® à ±Ãƒ ®llà ¥gà ¥, whà ¥thà ¥r  ³ts tà ® rà ¥m ³n à ±Ãƒ ®mà °Ãƒ ¥t ³t ³và ¥  ³n à ³Ãƒ ®ur f ³Ãƒ ¥ld, dvnà ±Ãƒ ¥  ³n à ³Ãƒ ®ur à ±rà ¥Ãƒ ¥r à ®r là ¥rn nà ¥w sk ³lls, à ³Ãƒ ®urà ¥ nà ®t là ®nà ¥.  ²ts à ¥st ³mtà ¥d tht rà ¥Ãƒ ±Ãƒ ®rd 21.8 m ³ll ³Ãƒ ®n studà ¥nts rà ¥ ttà ¥nd ³ng mà ¥r ³Ãƒ ±n à ±Ãƒ ®llà ¥gà ¥s nd un ³và ¥rs ³t ³Ãƒ ¥s th ³s fll nd rà ®ughlà ³ 8.7 m ³ll ³Ãƒ ®n à ®f thà ¥m rà ¥ à ®ldà ¥r studà ¥nts, gà ¥s 25 nd uà °. Dà ¥tà ¥rm ³n ³ng hà ®w tà ® blnà ±Ãƒ ¥ wà ®rk, fm ³là ³, à °Ãƒ ¥rsà ®nl à °ss ³Ãƒ ®ns nd à ®thà ¥r grà ®wnuà ° dà ¥mnds w ³th à ±Ãƒ ®llà ¥gà ¥ à ±Ãƒ ®ursà ¥s à ±n bà ¥ à ±hllà ¥ng ³ng fà ®r dults whà ® rà ¥turn tà ® sà ±hà ®Ãƒ ®l. nà ®thà ¥r à ±hllà ¥ngà ¥ fà ®r mnà ³  ³s dà ¥tà ¥rm ³n ³ng hà ®w tà ® à °Ãƒ ³ fà ®r thà ®sà ¥ à ±rà ¥d ³ts rà ¥grdlà ¥ss à ®f whà ¥thà ¥r à ³Ãƒ ®urà ¥ st ³ll wà ®rk ³ng nd à ¥rn ³ng  ³nà ±Ãƒ ®mà ¥, rà ¥turn ³ng tà ® sà ±hà ®Ãƒ ®l duà ¥ tà ® là ³-à ®ff à ®r à ±hà ®Ãƒ ®s ³ng tà ® tkà ¥ brà ¥k  ³n à ³Ãƒ ®ur à ±rà ¥Ãƒ ¥r. Ã’hà ¥ gà ®Ãƒ ®d nà ¥ws  ³s tht thà ¥rà ¥ rà ¥ vr ³Ãƒ ¥tà ³ à ®f rà ¥sà ®urà ±Ãƒ ¥s v ³lblà ¥ tà ® à ³Ãƒ ®u. s à ³Ãƒ ®u là ®Ãƒ ®k t wà ³s tà ® mkà ¥  ³t ll wà ®rk, hà ¥rà ¥ rà ¥ fà ¥w stà ¥Ãƒ °s à ³Ãƒ ®u mà ³ tkà ¥:  · Ã’h ³nk th ³ngs thrà ®ugh Whà ¥thà ¥r à ³Ãƒ ®u à °ln tà ® stà ³  ³n à ³Ãƒ ®ur à ±rà ¥Ãƒ ¥r f ³Ãƒ ¥ld à ®r tà ® à ¥ntà ¥r nà ¥w à ®nà ¥, à ±rà ¥fullà ³ rà ¥sà ¥rà ±h wht à ³Ãƒ ®u à ±n à ¥Ãƒ µÃƒ °Ãƒ ¥Ãƒ ±t tà ® mkà ¥.  ½trt bà ³ us ³ng n à ®nl ³nà ¥ slrà ³ à ±là ±ultà ®r fà ®r bllà °rk slrà ³ f ³gurà ¥s  ³n à ³Ãƒ ®ur gà ¥Ãƒ ®grà °h ³Ãƒ ±l rà ¥g ³Ãƒ ®n. Dà ®Ã‚ ³ng sà ® à ±n hà ¥là ° à ³Ãƒ ®u mkà ¥ rà ¥l ³st ³Ãƒ ± à ±hà ®Ã‚ ³Ãƒ ±Ãƒ ¥s à ®n hà ®w tà ® à °Ãƒ ³ fà ®r à ³Ãƒ ®ur à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®n nd à ¥nsurà ¥ tht à ³Ãƒ ®u dà ®nt sà °Ãƒ ¥nd mà ®rà ¥ thn à ³Ãƒ ®u à ±n à ±Ãƒ ®mfà ®rtblà ³ ffà ®rd.  ²f à ³Ãƒ ®u à ±hà ®Ãƒ ®sà ¥ tà ® usà ¥ là ®ns tà ® à °Ãƒ ³ tu ³t ³Ãƒ ®n,  ³t mà ³ bà ¥ gà ®Ãƒ ®d à °rà ±t ³Ãƒ ±Ãƒ ¥ tà ® bà ®rrà ®w ssum ³ng tht à ³Ãƒ ®ur slrà ³ wà ®nt  ³nà ±rà ¥sà ¥ s ³gn ³f ³Ãƒ ±ntlà ³ sà ® tht nà ³ à °Ãƒ ³  ³nà ±rà ¥sà ¥ à ³Ãƒ ®u dà ® g ³n à ±n fund f ³nnà ±Ã‚ ³l gà ®ls à ®thà ¥r thn à °Ãƒ ³Ã‚ ³ng bà ±k là ®ns.  · Là ®Ãƒ ®k t à ³Ãƒ ®ur tà ®tl à ¥Ãƒ µÃƒ °Ãƒ ¥nsà ¥s lthà ®ugh à ³Ãƒ ®u mà ³ nà ®t hvà ¥ à ±mà °us hà ®us ³ng à ±Ãƒ ®sts, à ³Ãƒ ®u à ±Ãƒ ®uld  ³nà ±ur à ®thà ¥r à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®n-rà ¥ltà ¥d à ¥Ãƒ µÃƒ °Ãƒ ¥nsà ¥s suà ±h s tà ¥Ãƒ ±hnà ®là ®gà ³ fà ¥Ãƒ ¥s, trnsà °Ãƒ ®rtt ³Ãƒ ®n nd à °rk ³ng à ®r à ±h ³ldà ±rà ¥. Ã’lk w ³th n dm ³ss ³Ãƒ ®ns à ±Ãƒ ®unsà ¥là ®r tà ® sà ¥Ãƒ ¥ wht à ±Ãƒ ®sts à ³Ãƒ ®u shà ®uld nt ³Ãƒ ±Ã‚ ³Ãƒ °tà ¥ nd whà ¥thà ¥r thà ¥Ãƒ ³ hvà ¥ sà ¥rv ³Ãƒ ±Ãƒ ¥s à ®r à °rà ®grms tht à ³Ãƒ ®u mà ³ tkà ¥ dvntgà ¥ tà ® hà ¥là ° w ³th thà ¥sà ¥  ³nà ±Ã‚ ³dà ¥ntls.  · à °Ãƒ °là ³ fà ®r fà ¥dà ¥rl  ³d Fà ¥dà ¥rl  ½tudà ¥nt  ³d, à °rt à ®f thà ¥ U. ½. Dà ¥Ãƒ °rtmà ¥nt à ®f Ã…duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®n,  ³s thà ¥ lrgà ¥st à °rà ®v ³dà ¥r à ®f studà ¥nt f ³nnà ±Ã‚ ³l  ³d  ³n thà ¥ nt ³Ãƒ ®n. F ³nnà ±Ã‚ ³l  ³d  ³snt  ¼ust fà ®r f ³rst t ³mà ¥ studà ¥nts.  ²t à °rà ®v ³dà ¥s grnts, là ®ns nd wà ®rk-studà ³ funds tà ® qul ³f ³Ãƒ ¥d studà ¥nts ttà ¥nd ³ng à ±Ãƒ ®llà ¥gà ¥ à ®r à ±rà ¥Ãƒ ¥r sà ±hà ®Ãƒ ®l. Ã’Ã ® là ¥rn mà ®rà ¥ à ®r tà ® à ±Ãƒ ®mà °là ¥tà ¥ thà ¥ Frà ¥Ãƒ ¥ à °Ãƒ °l ³Ãƒ ±t ³Ãƒ ®n fà ®r Fà ¥dà ¥rl  ½tudà ¥nt  ³d (FF ½) fà ®rm, v ³s ³t ffs.à ¥d.gà ®v. ?à ¥Ãƒ ¥Ãƒ °  ³n m ³nd tht sà ®mà ¥ f ³nnà ±Ã‚ ³l  ³d  ³s wrdà ¥d à ®n f ³rst-à ±Ãƒ ®mà ¥, f ³rst-sà ¥rvà ¥ bs ³s, sà ®  ³ts bà ¥ttà ¥r tà ® à °Ãƒ °là ³ sà ®Ãƒ ®nà ¥r thn ltà ¥r.  ·  ½Ãƒ ¥rà ±h fà ®r sà ±hà ®lrsh ³Ãƒ °s Yà ®u mà ³ bà ¥ surà °r ³sà ¥d tà ® là ¥rn tht mnà ³ sà ±hà ®lrsh ³Ãƒ ° à °rà ®grms dà ®nt hvà ¥ n uà °wrd gà ¥ l ³m ³t. Whts mà ®rà ¥, thà ¥rà ¥ rà ¥ sà ±hà ®lrsh ³Ãƒ °s sà °Ãƒ ¥Ãƒ ±Ã‚ ³f ³Ãƒ ±llà ³ fà ®r dult studà ¥nts. lsà ® à ±Ãƒ ®ns ³dà ¥r tlk ³ng w ³th à ³Ãƒ ®ur à ¥mà °là ®Ãƒ ³Ãƒ ¥r nd sà ±hà ®Ãƒ ®l dm ³ss ³Ãƒ ®ns à ±Ãƒ ®unsà ¥là ®r à ®r à °rà ®grm d ³rà ¥Ãƒ ±tà ®r tà ® f ³nd à ®ut whà ¥thà ¥r à ³Ãƒ ®u qul ³fà ³ fà ®r nà ³ sà ±hà ®lrsh ³Ãƒ °s, d ³sà ±Ãƒ ®unts à ®r tu ³t ³Ãƒ ®n rà ¥Ã‚ ³mbursà ¥mà ¥nt à °rà ®grms thà ¥Ãƒ ³ à ®ffà ¥r.  ²f à ³Ãƒ ®uvà ¥ bà ¥Ãƒ ¥n l ³d à ®ff, à ±hà ¥Ãƒ ±k w ³th à ³Ãƒ ®ur fà ®rmà ¥r à ±Ãƒ ®mà °nà ³s à R dà ¥Ãƒ °rtmà ¥nt tà ® f ³nd à ®ut  ³f thà ¥Ãƒ ³ w ³ll dd à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®n à ®r rà ¥tr ³n ³ng bà ¥nà ¥f ³ts tà ® à ³Ãƒ ®ur sà ¥và ¥rnà ±Ãƒ ¥ à °Ãƒ ±kgà ƒ ¥.  · Dà ¥tà ¥rm ³nà ¥  ³f à ³Ãƒ ®u qul ³fà ³ fà ®r tà µ à ±rà ¥d ³ts Ã’hà ¥rà ¥ rà ¥ twà ® tà µ à ±rà ¥d ³ts tht mà ³ bà ¥nà ¥f ³t à ³Ãƒ ®u. Ã’hà ¥ f ³rst, thà ¥ mà ¥r ³Ãƒ ±n ÃŽÃ °Ãƒ °Ãƒ ®rtun ³tà ³ Ã’Ã µ Ñrà ¥d ³t, à ±urrà ¥ntlà ³ à ®ffà ¥rs uà ° tà ® $2,500 à ®f thà ¥ à ±Ãƒ ®st à ®f tu ³t ³Ãƒ ®n, fà ¥Ãƒ ¥s nd à ±Ãƒ ®ursà ¥ mtà ¥r ³ls à °Ã‚ ³d dur ³ng thà ¥ tà µblà ¥ à ³Ãƒ ¥r fà ®r à ¥Ãƒ ±h à ®f thà ¥ f ³rst fà ®ur à ³Ãƒ ¥rs à ®f à °Ãƒ ®st-sà ¥Ãƒ ±Ãƒ ®ndrà ³ à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®n (wh ³là ¥ à ¥nrà ®llà ¥d t là ¥st à °rt-t ³mà ¥). lsà ®, 40 à °Ãƒ ¥rà ±Ãƒ ¥nt à ®f thà ¥ à ±rà ¥d ³t (uà ° tà ® $1,000)  ³s rà ¥fundblà ¥ fà ®r qul ³fà ³Ã‚ ³ng tà µÃƒ °Ãƒ ³Ãƒ ¥rs à ¥và ¥n  ³f à ³Ãƒ ®u à ®wà ¥ nà ® tà µ. Ã’hà ¥ sà ¥Ãƒ ±Ãƒ ®nd, thà ¥ L ³fà ¥t ³mà ¥ Là ¥rn ³ng Ñrà ¥d ³t, à ®ffà ¥rs uà ° tà ® $2,000 à °Ãƒ ¥r rà ¥turn tà ® stud à ¥nts whà ® rà ¥ tk ³ng à ®nà ¥ à ®r mà ®rà ¥ à °Ãƒ ®st-sà ¥Ãƒ ±Ãƒ ®ndrà ³ à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®n nd à ±Ãƒ ®ursà ¥s tà ® à ±qu ³rà ¥ à ®r  ³mà °rà ®và ¥  ¼Ãƒ ®b sk ³lls. Fà ®r hà ¥là ° dà ¥tà ¥rm ³n ³ng à ³Ãƒ ®ur à ¥l ³g ³b ³l ³tà ³, nd fà ®r  ³nfà ®rmt ³Ãƒ ®n bà ®ut à ®thà ¥r à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®n-rà ¥ltà ¥d tà µ bà ¥nà ¥f ³ts, v ³s ³t  ³rs.gà ®v.  ·  ½Ãƒ ¥t uà ° 529 à °ln 529 à °ln  ³s n à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®nl sv ³ng à °ln à ®Ãƒ °Ãƒ ¥rtà ¥d bà ³ sttà ¥ à ®r à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®nl  ³nst ³tut ³Ãƒ ®n. Dà ¥s ³gnà ¥d tà ® hà ¥là ° fm ³l ³Ãƒ ¥s sà ¥t s ³dà ¥ funds fà ®r futurà ¥ à ±Ãƒ ®llà ¥gà ¥ à ±Ãƒ ®sts, thà ¥sà ¥ à °lns rà ¥nt à ®nlà ³ fà ®r à ³Ãƒ ®ung studà ¥nts: thà ¥Ãƒ ³ rà ¥ gà ®Ãƒ ®d fà ®r studà ¥nts t nà ³ gà ¥. Dà ¥Ãƒ °Ãƒ ¥nd ³ng à ®n à ³Ãƒ ®ur s ³tut ³Ãƒ ®n, à ³Ãƒ ®u mà ³ qul ³fà ³ fà ®r sttà ¥ tà µ dà ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®ns à ®r à ±rà ¥d ³ts, à ®r mtà ±h ³ng grnt à °rà ®grms w ³th ³n thà ¥ à °ln. ?à ¥Ãƒ ¥Ãƒ °  ³n m ³nd tht nà ³ là ¥ftà ®và ¥r à °ln ssà ¥ts rà ¥ gà ¥nà ¥rllà ³ trnsfà ¥rblà ¥ mà ®ng rà ¥lt ³và ¥s  ³nà ±Ãƒ ®mà ¥ tà µ frà ¥Ãƒ ¥ (nd g ³ft tà µ frà ¥Ãƒ ¥  ³f  ³n thà ¥ smà ¥ gà ¥nà ¥rt ³Ãƒ ®n). Gà ®Ã‚ ³ng bà ±k tà ® sà ±hà ®Ãƒ ®l à ±n bà ¥ và ¥rà ³ rà ¥wrd ³ng à ¥Ãƒ µÃƒ °Ãƒ ¥r ³Ãƒ ¥nà ±Ãƒ ¥, but  ³t à ±n à ±Ãƒ ®mà ¥ w ³th lrgà ¥ à °r ³Ãƒ ±Ãƒ ¥ tg. Fà ®rtuntà ¥là ³, thà ¥rà ¥ rà ¥ mnà ³ à ®Ãƒ °t ³Ãƒ ®ns fà ®r ffà ®rd ³ng sà ±hà ®Ãƒ ®l t nà ³ gà ¥. ftà ¥r dà ¥tà ¥rm ³n ³ng wht à ³Ãƒ ®ur à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®n w ³ll à ±Ãƒ ®st nd whà ¥thà ¥r à ³Ãƒ ®u qul ³fà ³ fà ®r  ³d, sà ±hà ®lrsh ³Ãƒ °s à ®r tu ³t ³Ãƒ ®n rà ¥Ã‚ ³mbursà ¥mà ¥nt, à ±Ãƒ ®nsult w ³th à ³Ãƒ ®ur f ³nnà ±Ã‚ ³l nd tà µ à °rà ®fà ¥ss ³Ãƒ ®nls. Ã’hà ¥Ãƒ ³ à ±n hà ¥là ° à ³Ãƒ ®u ssà ¥ss thà ¥ bà ¥st wà ³ tà ® à °Ãƒ ³ fà ®r à ³Ãƒ ®ur rà ¥m ³n ³ng à ¥duà ±t ³Ãƒ ®n à ±Ãƒ ®sts, whà ¥thà ¥r  ³t  ³nvà ®lvà ¥s blnà ±Ã‚ ³ng w ³th à ³Ãƒ ®ur à ±urrà ¥nt sv ³ngs gà ®ls, sà ¥tt ³ng uà ° 529 à °ln à ®r à ®thà ¥r  ³nvà ¥stmà ¥nt, à ®r tk ³ng à ®ut là ®n.

A Biographical Sketch of William Morris Davis

A Biographical Sketch of William Morris Davis William Morris Davis is often called the Father of American Geography for his work in not only helping to establish geography as an academic discipline but also for his advancement of physical geography and the development of geomorphology. Life and Career Davis was born in Philadelphia in 1850. At the age of 19, he earned his bachelors degree from Harvard University and one year later earned his Masters degree in engineering. Davis then spent three years working at Argentinas meteorological observatory and subsequently returned to Harvard to study geology and physical geography. In 1878, Davis was appointed an instructor in physical geography at Harvard and by 1885 became a full professor. Davis continued to teach at Harvard until his retirement in 1912. Following his retirement, he occupied several visiting scholar positions at universities across the United States. Davis died in Pasadena, California in 1934. Geography William Morris Davis was very excited about the discipline of geography; he worked hard to increase its recognition. In the 1890s, Davis was an influential member of a committee that helped to establish geography standards in the public schools. Davis and the committee felt that geography needed to be treated as a general science in primary and secondary schools and these ideas were adopted. Unfortunately, after a decade of the new geography, it slipped back to being rote knowledge of place names and eventually disappeared into the bowels of social studies. Davis also helped to build geography up at the university level. In addition to training some of Americas foremost geographers of the twentieth century (such as Mark Jefferson, Isaiah Bowman, and Ellsworth Huntington), Davis helped to found the Association of American Geographers (AAG). Recognizing the need for an academic organization composed of academics trained in geography, Davis met with other geographers and formed the AAG in 1904. Davis served as the AAGs first president in 1904 and was reelected in 1905, and ultimately served a third term in 1909. Though Davis was very influential in the development of geography as a whole, he is probably best known for his work in geomorphology. Geomorphology Geomorphology is the study of the earths landforms. William Morris Davis founded this subfield of geography. Though at his time the traditional idea of the development of landforms was through the great biblical flood, Davis and others began to believe that other factors were responsible for shaping the earth. Davis developed a theory of landform creation and erosion, which he called the geographical cycle. This theory is more commonly known as the cycle of erosion, or more properly, the geomorphic cycle. His theory explained that mountains and landforms are created, mature, and then become old. He explained that the cycle begins with the uplift of mountains. Rivers and streams begin to create V-shaped valleys among the mountains (the stage called youth). During this first stage, the relief is steepest and most irregular. Over time, the streams are able to carve wider valleys (maturity) and then begin to meander, leaving only gently rolling hills (old age). Finally, all that is left is a flat, level plain at the lowest elevation possible (called the base level.) This plain was called by Davis a peneplain, which means almost a plain for a plain is actually a completely flat surface). Then, rejuvenation occurs and there is another uplift of mountains and the cycle continues. Though Davis theory is not entirely accurate, it was quite revolutionary and outstanding at its time and helped to modernize physical geography and create the field of geomorphology. The real world is not quite as orderly as Davis cycles and,  certainly, erosion occurs during the uplift process. However, Davis message was communicated quite well to other scientists through the excellent sketches and illustrations that were included in Davis publications. In all, Davis published over 500 works though he never earned his Ph.D. Davis was certainly one of the greatest academic geographers of the century. He is not only responsible for that which he accomplished during his lifetime, but also for the outstanding work done across geography by his disciples.

SHORT LISTENING ASSIGNMENT FORMAT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

SHORT LISTENING ASSIGNMENT FORMAT - Essay Example The saxophone and the trumpet both provided smooth and consistent ride patterns for most parts in the song (www.youtube.com/watch). Cool jazz is evident because this song smoothed out a combination of swing and bop tones. Furthermore, dynamics and harmonic elements were softened in this song. The classic jazz style is also evident because the musical instruments that have been used e.g. the saxophone, drums and double bass, show the classical style of jazz music. The musical arrangement incorporates many solos, which substantially embellished the rhythm and melody with ornaments that improvise jazz music. Both the saxophone and the trumpet provided smooth swings at some points within the song. The jazz group technique that I can hear in this song is the riffs, and trading in some parts within the song. The drum in the song was significantly effectively because beat can not be filled without the rhythm of the drum. In some parts of the song where there was some silence, the drum added beats which kept the band with a better feeling. The stylish integration of the double bass and the drums also provide a consistent ride pattern all through the song (ccnmtl.columbia.edu). The song was introduced by the trumpet and saxophone which brought a pleasant feeling to the whole song. Syncopation was provided by both the piano and the drum at some points within the song. I choose to the drum because its effects were the most noticeable throughout the song. Its effects were highly noticeable all through the song, and towards the end of the song, the drum brought a conclusive touch and feel into the song. It was remarkably successful because it served all its purposes in the song effectively. I loved how the drum effects were integrated in the song.  The song is pleasing to me. I appreciate the manner in which it was delivered. The thing that I liked was the way in which the instrumentalists played their roles. One

Finance Investor constraints and mutual funds Essay

Finance Investor constraints and mutual funds - Essay Example B. is not a sophisticated man who would be able to understand the intricacies of creating and monitoring a traditional portfolio of stocks and bonds. Given the investment parameters and lifestyle needs of the client, we will look for a mutual fund that is primarily invested in domestic corporate bonds. Mr. B. is unwilling to take any large losses in his portfolio, so safety of principle will important. He needs a good return to provide monthly income and supplement his social security, and is willing to erode the principle somewhat over the next twelve years of his life expectancy. Accordingly, our fund search will focus on bond funds, as there is no need to consider higher risk investments in the international or growth stock sector. Since Mr. B. has neither the risk tolerance level nor the need to grow his portfolio, we will search for a managed bond fund that has low expenses. As for tax consideration, Mr. B. is currently in a low tax bracket and is looking for his money to provide the highest dependable return. Accordingly, he does not require a sophisticated tax strategy using municipal and other tax-advantaged investments. The screening criteria are: High-yield bond, average manager tenure for the category, no-load funds only, category average fund expenses, four or five star rating from Morningstar, and a Morningstar risk level of below average (Morningstar, 1). This search returned ten funds: Buffalo High-Yield (BUFHX); Fidelity Advisor High Income (FHIAX); Fidelity Advisor High Income Instl (FHNIX); MassMutual Premier High Yield (DHLHYX); Northeast Investors (NTHEX); Regions Morgan Keegan Select Hi Inc A LW (MKHIX); Regions Morgan Keegan Select Hi Inc I (RHIIX); T. Rowe Price High-Yield (PRHYX); T. Rowe Price High-Yield Adv (PAHIX); and Wells Fargo Advantage High Income I (SHYYX)(Morningstar, 1). We have chosen Northeast Investors for Mr. B. because of its higher yield, relatively low expense ratio, and its large asset base. This fund

HEA 409 Business Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

HEA 409 Business Plan - Essay Example The other section is financial projections. On the basis of a healthcare organization, the following is a description of service description section and the financial projections. The healthcare organization that is to be formed, HealthCo Organization will provide premier healthcare services especially to home-based care patients. In addition, HealthCo Organization will also be involved in providing skilled and effective nursing services, social work, as well as different forms of therapies (Walshe & Smith, 2011). Amongst the therapies that will be provided by HealthCo Organization include speech, physical, and occupational therapy. The surrounding community is known to be workaholics and would not have adequate time to relax and have adequate physical exercises. In addition, the community is made of many old people that require adequate physical therapies to boost their health. As a result, HealthCo Organization will be involved in extensive home-based health care besides offering the aforementioned forms of therapies in order to enhance the health of the community. HealthCo Organization will also provide other services that include injury case management especially in respect to games and fire (Thomas, 2003). The injury case management that HealthCo Organization will provide involves an intensive program and awareness on the cases of various forms of injuries. Moreover, HealthCo Organization will also be involved in providing adequate and effective assessment of the injuries sustained, planning on how to solve the injuries, providing adequate understanding of how to care for such injuries, and ensuring that the injuries are not only treated but also cared for adequately (Walshe & Smith, 2011). Lastly, there will be professional services in respect to general health and the environment for any community

Critical response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critical response - Essay Example After staying in the background for decades, both countries are now open to business with America and have added their low-cost labor forces into the world’s labor pool, not only dramatically decreasing wages of Americans but in fact pushing many of them out of employment. American companies are forced to hire cheap foreign labor to remain favorable in terms of dividends and thus competitive for their shareholders. I f they do not, their dividends will remain low and stockholders will compare them to companies with low costs. The interesting fact is that these stock holders are not just huge corporate giants but average Americans as well. â€Å"The American middle class has become an army of investors whose tough demands are translating into more layoffs among their own ranks† (Meredith 2007: 193.2). In the short term this benefits investors but in the long run loss of jobs makes them worse off. Another interesting phenomena paradox is the â€Å"Walmart† culture (Meredith 2007: 191.3). Walmat stocks abundant supply of cheap Chinese and India goods that benefits average consumers by giving them extremely low prices and a high range of products. So where Americans are being laid off as high cost factories in America shut down, they are at the same time benefitting as consumers. The reading points out that while the globalized era is posing to be a huge threat, it is at the same time bringing lots of benefits. Trade with china keeps down interest rates and inflation in America. Chinese Government has the world’s largest dollar reserves which it buys in US treasury bonds in order to keep its own exchange rate stable (Meredith 2007: 194.2). Demand for bonds raises their prices and forces interest rates to remain low due to their negative relationship. This has led to average Americans to enjoy lower amounts of credit and a larger affordability for loan, enabling them to buy houses more often than before. China

000 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

000 - Essay Example Moreover, this thesis looks more like a fact which cannot be argued. Yes, new power sources for cars appear, such as electric batteries and hydrogen fuel cells. But no one can argue that, this statement won’t cause a debate. The author could have restated the thesis and make it more debatable. For instance, â€Å"the appearance of these new power sources in the auto industry generates a number of questions concerning safety, effectiveness and convenience of their usage†. And then the author would continue his/her essay, describing pros and cons of these new sources. In this essay there are some good justifications that using electric engines and hydrogen fuel cells might be inconvenient and even dangerous. 2) The author’s counterarguments are the disadvantages of new power sources for cars. Throughout the author’s main point is that gas energy won’t be used in the near future, because it is expensive and pollutes the nature. He/she argues that electric engines and hydrogen fuel cells are better choices. There are some counterarguments, but they are scattered throughout the essay. The author claims, that despite the benefits of new sources, some problems may arise. With electric cars the problem is, firstly, the exorbitant price, and secondly, the need to charge it all the time. In the case of hydrogen fuel cells, the gallons might be explosive, so there is a need for a proper tool to fuel a car. The counterarguments are real – they are stated facts. 3) According to Joining Academic Conversations, there are several types of arguments: arguments from the heart, arguments based on value, on facts and reason, on character, proposals, stylish and humorous arguments. On the whole, I would say that his essay does not deserve the highest mark. It does not meet the standards of MLA format. Moreover, the thesis needs some revision, because it is simply restating a fact. And I would change the

The role of the HR function Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The role of the HR function - Assignment Example Self development plan not only provides the self reflection but it also sets the path straight in terms of career Personal development program is very important. It provides the framework to the individual to conduct personal self assessment and identify his strengths and weaknesses. It helps in charting out the guideline to optimize and capitalize on the existing capabilities and determine the future path. It helps in identifying the areas of development and ways to enhance capabilities and knowledge and helps in deciding and developing a clear picture of the future in terms of career. Personal development plan is geared towards progress of both personality and self. A clear analysis of existing capabilities and desired ones helps in boosting self esteem and a clear picture of the future enable to add appropriate qualifications especially when you are vying for higher position (Attwood, 2005). This paper aims at creating my own personal development plan in the light of the different theories of personality, learning and leadership. Personal Development Plan A personal development plan consists of the following major steps. 1. What is my current state 2. What is my desired state 3. How do I get there? What is needed 4. ... So it is beneficial to identify the personality type first using the Myers Brigg Type Indicator (MBTI). MBTI It is one of the best known and most widely used for identifying personality and learning style. MBTI identifies the psychological type on four different scales namely Extraversion Vs Introversion (E-I), Sensing Vs Intuition (S-I), Thinking vs. Feelings (T-F) and Judging vs. perceiving (Gardner, 2009). The E-I indicator shows whether the energy and attention primarily comes from inside or from outside events. S-I indicators shows how the individual perceive the world and take the information whether directly from the five senses i.e. sensing or indirectly by using intuition. T-I indicator shows preferences in decision making either logical and rational or subjective values like based on like and dislike. The last indicator is J-P that shows individual’s choice whether to use judging or perceptive attitude for dealing with the environment (Knights et al 2007). I took MBT I online test to identify my personality. The test identified my personality type as ESFP. It shows I am an extrovert and I have the following characteristics sociable, outgoing, talkative, gregarious, active, optimist and impulsive. In my perceptions I rely on my five senses. Both of them are my strengths. However in my judgments I am not rational and logical and mostly make judgments based on my likes and dislike. That is a weakness. My attitude in dealing with the environment is based on perception rather than judging, it can also be considered a weakness (Ewing, 2006) Learning Style There are six types of learning styles namely reading, writing, listening, speaking, visualizing and manipulating. No one style is better than the other. Generally people use the learning style

Critical response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critical response - Essay Example After staying in the background for decades, both countries are now open to business with America and have added their low-cost labor forces into the world’s labor pool, not only dramatically decreasing wages of Americans but in fact pushing many of them out of employment. American companies are forced to hire cheap foreign labor to remain favorable in terms of dividends and thus competitive for their shareholders. I f they do not, their dividends will remain low and stockholders will compare them to companies with low costs. The interesting fact is that these stock holders are not just huge corporate giants but average Americans as well. â€Å"The American middle class has become an army of investors whose tough demands are translating into more layoffs among their own ranks† (Meredith 2007: 193.2). In the short term this benefits investors but in the long run loss of jobs makes them worse off. Another interesting phenomena paradox is the â€Å"Walmart† culture (Meredith 2007: 191.3). Walmat stocks abundant supply of cheap Chinese and India goods that benefits average consumers by giving them extremely low prices and a high range of products. So where Americans are being laid off as high cost factories in America shut down, they are at the same time benefitting as consumers. The reading points out that while the globalized era is posing to be a huge threat, it is at the same time bringing lots of benefits. Trade with china keeps down interest rates and inflation in America. Chinese Government has the world’s largest dollar reserves which it buys in US treasury bonds in order to keep its own exchange rate stable (Meredith 2007: 194.2). Demand for bonds raises their prices and forces interest rates to remain low due to their negative relationship. This has led to average Americans to enjoy lower amounts of credit and a larger affordability for loan, enabling them to buy houses more often than before. China

The role of the HR function Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The role of the HR function - Assignment Example Self development plan not only provides the self reflection but it also sets the path straight in terms of career Personal development program is very important. It provides the framework to the individual to conduct personal self assessment and identify his strengths and weaknesses. It helps in charting out the guideline to optimize and capitalize on the existing capabilities and determine the future path. It helps in identifying the areas of development and ways to enhance capabilities and knowledge and helps in deciding and developing a clear picture of the future in terms of career. Personal development plan is geared towards progress of both personality and self. A clear analysis of existing capabilities and desired ones helps in boosting self esteem and a clear picture of the future enable to add appropriate qualifications especially when you are vying for higher position (Attwood, 2005). This paper aims at creating my own personal development plan in the light of the different theories of personality, learning and leadership. Personal Development Plan A personal development plan consists of the following major steps. 1. What is my current state 2. What is my desired state 3. How do I get there? What is needed 4. ... So it is beneficial to identify the personality type first using the Myers Brigg Type Indicator (MBTI). MBTI It is one of the best known and most widely used for identifying personality and learning style. MBTI identifies the psychological type on four different scales namely Extraversion Vs Introversion (E-I), Sensing Vs Intuition (S-I), Thinking vs. Feelings (T-F) and Judging vs. perceiving (Gardner, 2009). The E-I indicator shows whether the energy and attention primarily comes from inside or from outside events. S-I indicators shows how the individual perceive the world and take the information whether directly from the five senses i.e. sensing or indirectly by using intuition. T-I indicator shows preferences in decision making either logical and rational or subjective values like based on like and dislike. The last indicator is J-P that shows individual’s choice whether to use judging or perceptive attitude for dealing with the environment (Knights et al 2007). I took MBT I online test to identify my personality. The test identified my personality type as ESFP. It shows I am an extrovert and I have the following characteristics sociable, outgoing, talkative, gregarious, active, optimist and impulsive. In my perceptions I rely on my five senses. Both of them are my strengths. However in my judgments I am not rational and logical and mostly make judgments based on my likes and dislike. That is a weakness. My attitude in dealing with the environment is based on perception rather than judging, it can also be considered a weakness (Ewing, 2006) Learning Style There are six types of learning styles namely reading, writing, listening, speaking, visualizing and manipulating. No one style is better than the other. Generally people use the learning style

Industrial Revolution Essay Example for Free

Industrial Revolution Essay While the Industrial Revolution had both positive and negative effects on society and the economy, the positive effects outweighed the negative. The Industrial Revolution was absolutely beneficial to the progress of the world from the 1800s all the way to present day. Sacrifices were made which allowed technological advancements during the Industrial Revolution, which in turn, created happiness, life opportunities, and an over-all, definite improvement of life. Even though at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, many hardships had to be overcome, causing great grief to most of the population. Faith was lost, patience was tried, and a blanket of oppression covered the people of Europe. When new inventions rose to aid the producing and mass-producing of goods that supplied the people of Europe, nearly everyone was forced to begin a new career within a factory. These are just some of the hardships that many loyal, hardworking citizens were faced with. The Industrial Revolution had a more positive effect on Western society in the 19th century. Although child labor during the 1820s was quite hard on most of the children working and also proved to be quite dangerous, it still brought about the creation of child labor laws and also the funding of schools. As factories began to develop, the organization within them also stepped up. There was an increase in production and assembly lines took place creating a more orderly environment to be working in. Also, many inventions started to develop and be discovered, creating an easier and more accurate way of doing things, not just in factories, but also in the home. Lastly, railroads were a big part of the Industrial Revolution in that they created a faster and cheaper way to transport goods and materials from one place to another. The Industrial Revolution had many hardships, but also it had point were it created happiness for many people. Now you know why I believe that the positive effects outweighed the negative effects.

Afforestation and Deforestation

Afforestation and Deforestation Forests are threatened by both biotic and a-biotic factors such as climatic hazards, diseases prompted by insects or pathogens, threats of a purely anthropogenic nature, fires, atmospheric pollution, deforastation, and the increase in social pressures.ÂÂ   But this classic division is a bit artificial, since man is partly responsible for all these threats.ÂÂ  Indeed the mark of human actions is always present : it is however relatively moderate concerning climatic disorder despite the emissions of greenhouse gases, responsible for important destructions ; it is average in the sensitive growth of certain artificial forestry stands prone to parasitic attacks ; it is preponderant in the phenomena of atmospheic pollution or of deforestation. These aggressions will therefore be classed by groups but keeping an effort to maintain classification by growing order of mans implications, and therefore the possibility of theoretical intervention will also increase. Agricultural purposes Grazing cattle or planting crops. Poor farmers in developing countries chop down a small area of trees and burn them, which provide nutrients for the soil (know as the Slash-and-Burn technique). This supply is quickly exhausted so the farmers move on to a fresh area, and the cycle starts again. This occurs on a much larger scale for intensive or modern agriculture e.g. large cattle pastures often replace rain forest to grow beef . Commercial logging the cutting down of trees for sale as timber or pulp. In the developed world, there are increasing demands for hardwoods such as mahogany and ebony. The rate at which trees are felled is increasing to meet these demands. People in third world countries need the timber for firewood, as its practically the only source of fuel available to people living there. The heavy machinery used (e.g. bulldozers) is just as damaging to a forest overall as the chainsaws are to individual trees. Climatic hazards and natural catastrophes Climatic hazards or natural catastrophes are pratically independent from the actions of the man. However, the worries concerning eventual future climatic changes, due to the consequences of green house gases from industrial pollution are going to grow. It is sufficient to study here not the ways of fighting these aggressions, but those measures to take before forestry stands are subjected to these events.ÂÂ   Forests are submitted more than any other terrestrial ecosystem to climatic hazards, due to the duration of their maturity, wich can take up to 200 years. In such a period the number of climatic hazards can be great. Storms and win-blow Storms have had an important destructive effect throughout this century, especially throughout the last twenty five years in Europe, destroying millions of m3 of wood, the following 1990, almost 110 million m3 destroyed throughout Europe.ÂÂ   1999, 140 million m3 in France.ÂÂ   These anarchic destructions greatly perturb cutting cycles and general forestry work. Delaying The development of the forest and disrupting the wood market. Against such freak winds forestry management has very little power. However, although foresters are unable to prevent such catastrophes, they have the power to limit the destruction of violent winds by favouring the development of stands that are more wind resistant, and by adopting a prudent and diverse outlook towards management. Periods of drought Water stress renders forestry stands very fragile. They can arise either by a change in the distribution of water throughout the seasons, for the same quantity of annual precipitation (the supply therefore being brought forward in relation to the demand of forest stands), or by a fall in the annual volume of precipitation. It has now been established that the numerous cases of dieback observed in forests stands throughout the world in the last ten years (which at the time were entirely blamed on atmospheric pollution) are due in part, to periodic water stress. In fact, those observations realised concern those forests in regions subjected to strong pollution fall out, but also forests of less affected regions. ÂÂ   Biotic Threats Diseases and the attack of insects : brief overview of the situationÂÂ   Insects and fungi play an important part towards the causes of dieback in many forests of the world.ÂÂ   These biotic agents intervene, either as primary agressors, or most often as secondary agressors, often attacking already weakened stands. The examples of diseases and illnesses caused by pathogens are unfortunately numerous and only a few will be outlined. These illnesses develop, either as a result of native pathogenic activity, or by the invasion of the non-native agents in non-resistant stands. Robredo and Cadahia drew up a very complete table of the world situation concerning this problem during the tenth world forestry congress, from wich the following text is largely inspired (in COLLECTIF. The forest, inheritance of the future Acts of the tenth forestry congress . French forestry revue. Nancy, 1991.). In North Africa, natural cedar stands are attacked by xylophitic insects , during periods of climatic stress. In Spain,ÂÂ  Abies pinsapoÂÂ  is subjected to combined attacks of theFungiÂÂ  Fomes annosus, and xylophitic and cortical perforating insects. In Europe, dieback can be observed amongst various oak species, most notably, the cork oak and evergreen oak (attacks ofÂÂ  DiplodiaÂÂ  andHypoxilon). In Quebec, the pine shoot moth periodically attacks the annual shoots of (Abies balsamea and Picea glauca) as in the whole of the North East of North America. This indigenous insect reaches epidemic proportions roughly every thirty years. The last infestation (1938-1958) provoked the death of 60 % of Firs and 20 % of Spruces. At the end of 1975, an epidemic breakout covered 35 million ha of Quebec. Fires:-Fire has always been an element present in many forestry ecosystems. Natural causes of fire exist such as lightening and volcanic eruptions. The area subjected to natural fires has been very important and can cover millions of hectares. However the lapse of time is generally long between successive fires, permitting the ecosystem to recover and reconstitute itself.ÂÂ   Large fires have always ravaged the surface of the earth. In the North of China, 1.33 million ha went up in flames in 1987 ; more than 3.5 million ha were burnt in Kalimantan (Borneo) between 1982 and 1983 ; in 1988, 400.000 ha were destroyed by fire in the United States in yellow stone national park. Recently in 1993, considerable damage was done by an enormous fire in Australia. The importance of human factor The main causes of contemporary fires and anthropogenic : This is the case with the recurrent fires in the European Mediterranean zone, or those fires provoked in tropical humid zones, which have their goal the clearing of land for agriculture. In dry tropical zones with mixed broadleaved forests and rich undergrowth, human populations have always used fire to make way for grazing and agriculture. In Europe, figures gathered by the FAO permit one to establish the area of forest burnt annually between 1980 and 1988, i.e. some 585.000 ha. During the same period North America lost some 3.5 million hectares of forest to fires. That percentage attribued to human causes being around 97% in Europe, 91% in the United States and 66% in Canada. Very little is known concerning the equivalent information for the entire world. The total wooded surface touched by fire annually is around 10 million hectares, which represents some 0.3% of the total world forested area. However the impact of these fires is more important than this small percentage suggests. In fact, in the zones where the frequence of fires is high, the destructive character of such fires is worsened by the fact that forest stands do not have the time to reconstitute themselves between the passage of two consecutive fires.ÂÂ   An Integrated policy for the prevention and fighting of fires The methods of fighting fires must be adapted to the socio-cultural environment in which they are put into place. Developed countries Developed countries possess the necessary materials to permit them to carry out a No-fire policy in order to satisfy public opinion, which is generally very sensitive to this form of threat to the natural environment. In this case, a perfect coordination between terrestrial and aerial fire fighting means must be provided, in addition to the active participation of the public and private forestry sectors, for example, in the participation of preventive operations and detective procedures.ÂÂ   Developing countries In developing countries or in natural regions wich are less densely populated, one must accept that a part of the wooded surface will be burnt. This practice is due to an agro-silvo-pastoral culture wich includes positive elements and is therefore difficult to condemn. Solutions can not be looked for without taking into account the subsistence requirements of those populations concerned. 3. BENEFITS OF AFORESTATION Afforestation refers to the conversion of wasteland into a woodland or forest. It is essentially the transformation of land which has not been forested for a period of more than 40 year to woodland through seeding and planting. Afforestation is the best technique used to minimize the greenhouse effect. Therefore, there is constant necessity to develop afforestation programs in order to preserve and protect the forestry including the wasteland. A massive afforestation program is required to meet the increasing demand of fuel wood, timber and fodder. Here are the main benefits of afforestation. 1. Preserves wildlife Afforestation is useful especially when it comes to protecting the wildlife. According to recent scientific studies, upland forest vegetation tends to affect the population of birds on neighboring unplanted moorlands. Planting of trees simply restores and maintains ecological balance of all systems in the environment. 2. Tourist attraction Trees provide oxygen and also help to preserve ecological splendor of the landscape which in turn attracts tourists from all parts of the world. 3. Minimizes soil erosion Soil erosion is significantly reduced as tree plantations prevent run off after heavy rains. In addition, trees bring soils together which prevents soil erosion. 4. Provides forest products With an increase in demand for forest and timber products, afforestation is very valuable due to the explosion of livestock and human population. For that reason, construction of infrastructure has led to the demand of forest products. 5. Stabilizes the climate Planting of trees in semi-arid areas attracts rainfall. This way, agricultural practices such as irrigation are carried out efficiently. In addition, afforestation acts as a catchment for water and soil conservation.(5) 4 .EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION When forests are killed, nature basically requires people to renew the forest. Reforestation is one concept that is in the opposite direction as deforestation, but is proven to be a much harder effort than deforestation. So the rate of deforestation has not been offset by the rate of reforestation. Thus, the world is now in a troubled state when it comes to issues concerning the environment. Climate Change When an area of rainforest is either cut down or destroyed, there are various climate changes that happen as a result. The following is a list of the various climate changes with a brief description of why they come about. Desication of previously moist forest soil What happens is because of the exposure to the sun, the soil gets baked and the lack of canopy leaves nothing to prevent the moisture from quickly evaporating into the atmosphere. Thus, previously moist soil becomes dry and cracked. Dramatic Increase in Temperature Extremes Trees provide shade and the shaded area has a moderated temperature. With shade, the temperature may be 98 degrees Farenheit during the day and 60 degrees at night. With out the shade, temperatures would be much colder during the night and around 130 degrees during the day. Moist Humid Region Changes to Desert This is related to the desicaiton of previously moist forest soil. Primarily because of the lack of moisture and the inability to keep moisture, soil that is exposed to the sun will dry and turn into desert sand. Even before that happens, when the soil becomes dry, dust storms become more frequent. At that point, the soil becomes usesless. No Recycling of Water Moisture from the oceans fall as rain on adjacent coastal regions. The moisture is soon sent up to the atmosphere through the transpiration of foliage to fall again on inland forest areas. This cycle repeats several times to rain on all forest regions. Less Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen Exchange The rainforests are important in the carbon dioxide exchange process. They are second only to oceans as the most important sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide. The most recent survey on deforestaiton and greenhouse gas emisions reports that deforestation may account for as much as 10% of current greenhouse gas emmisions. Greenhouse gases are gases in the atmosphere that literally trap heat. There is a theory that as more greenhouse gasses are released into the atmosphere, more heat gets trapped. Thus, there is a global warming trend in which the average temperature becomes progressivily higher. The ozone layer is a mass of oxygen or O3 atoms that serves as shield in the atmosphere against the harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. Because ozone is made up of oxygen atoms, oxygen react with carbon monoxide. Such reaction would use up oxygen It follows that when there are more carbon monoxide atoms going to the atmosphere, the volume of oxygen would decline. Such is the case of ozone depletion. More Desertification According to the United Nations Enviromental Programme (UNEP) in 1977, deforestation is an important factor contributing to desertificaiton. What is unclear is how fast deserts are expanding is controversial. According to UNEP, between 1958 and 1975, the Saharen Desert expanded southward by about 100km. In 1980 UNEP estimated that desertification threatened 35 per cent of the worlds land surface and 20 per cent of the worlds population. Recently, groups challenged those conclusions. Some scientists claim that the conclusion were based on insufficient data. Nevertheless, desertification still threatens more and more drylands. 7. (Soil Erosion Soil ErosionÂÂ   The trees and shrubs in a forest cover the ground and protect the soil from the rain. Tree leaves intercept the rain fall, and shrubs and leaf litter protects the soil from water dripping off the leaves. With this protection removed, the rain falls directly onto the bare soil and erodes it. The rain also leaches the soil of important nutrients, making it less fertile. 8. The Greenhouse EffectÂÂ   During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is taken in and oxygen is given out. Deforestation removes the carbon sinks, and coupled with the carbon dioxide emitted from the burning of fossil, the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increase. The carbon dioxide forms a blanket around the earth and traps heat from solar radiation. This is called the greenhouse effect, and causes the average temperature of the earth to rise. If this continues, the polar ice caps could melt and cause flooding. 9. Disruption of the Hydrological CycleÂÂ   Deforestation can effect the local climate of an area by reducing the evaporative cooling that takes place from the soil and plants. Because the amount of evapotranspiration has been reduced, the formation of clouds and therefore precipitation is also reduced. This threatens the existence of the remaining plants in the forest. Deforestation can also cause flooding. In forested areas, flood water is absorbed into the soil and taken up by the tree roots. The water is then transpired through aerial parts of the plant and into the atmosphere, where it forms clouds. In deforested areas, the flood water runs across the area and is not stopped by vegetation. The top layer of soil is eroded in this process and gets transported into rivers where it causes the level of silt to rise. This rise in the river level causes floods to occur more frequently. Less evaporation also means that more of the suns energy is used to warm the surface and consequ ently the air above, leading to a rise in temperatures. 10. Spreading of DiseaseÂÂ   the mosquito, anopheles darlingi, which spreads malaria parasites, breeds in pools of water that are created in deforested land and on eroded land. Deforestation therefore favours a population explosion of this species. 11. Flooding. Deforestation can result to watersheds that are no longer able to sustain and regulate water flows from rivers and streams. Trees are highly effective in absorbing water quantities, keeping the amount of water in watersheds to a manageable level. The forest also serves as a cover against erosion. Once they are gone, too much water can result to downstream flooding, many of which have caused disasters in many parts of the world. As fertile topsoil is eroded and flooded into the lower regions, many coastal fisheries and coral reefs suffer from the sedimentation brought by the flooding. This results to negative effects in the economic viability of many businesses and fatalities in wildlife population. 12. Other Effects (a) Demand for land for cultivation. This has been seen both in Kenya and other parts of the world especially countries that have Agriculture as the backbone of their economy. Trees have been cut down to obtain land for cultivation of both subsistence and cash crops, both by governments and individuals. b) Need for firewood People, especially those who live in rural areas where electricity and gas are unavailable, resort to use of firewood as a source of heat. Here, wood is cut down and burnt. c) Need for land to build industries Industries require a lot of land and while industrialization is important for every country, it is the bane of large tracts of forest. People need jobs in order to provide for their daily needs. d) Need for land to build houses With the worldwide increase in population, land to build houses for people to live in is very much required. e) Need for wood for furniture, pencils, paper etc) There many rewards such as clean air and clean water, perhaps the two most important, that forests provide. Rainforests also provide many aesthetic, recreational and cultural rewards. If the rainforests are destroyed, then these rewards dissappear. This has major social repercusions for the entire world. Effect to biodiversity Destruction of animal habitats: Apart from domesticated animals and marine and fresh water animals, all other animals need forests as their habitats. These forests do not only provide a place for the animals to roam day but also provide their food and act as a source of protection from predators through camouflage. Destruction of the animals habitats literally kills the animals. Medicinal Plants: Some trees are used as herbs. Trees such as the Cinchona have been used as treatment against Malaria since time immemorial. Destruction of these forests leads to destruction of medicinal plants that could be used as treatment for various ailments. Forests are natural habitats to many types of animals and organisms. That is why, when there is deforestation, many animals are left without shelters. Those that manage to go through the flat lands and residential sites are then killed by people. Through the years, it is estimated that there are millions of plant and extinct animal species that have been wiped out because they have been deprived of home. Thus, biodiversity is significantly lowered because of the savage deforestation practices of some people. Wildlife advocates have been constantly reminding that several wild animals left in the world could still be saved if deforested forests would only be reforested and the practice of slash and burn of forests would be totally abandoned. Social effects of deforestation Deforestation is hardly hitting the living conditions of indigenous people who consider forests as their primary habitats. Imagine how they are rendered homeless when forests are depleted. These natives would be forced to live elsewhere, and are usually left to becoming mendicants in rural and urban areas. water sinks in deeper to the ground, and eventually replenishing the supply of water in the water table. Now, imagine what happens when there is not enough forests anymore. Water from rain would simply flow through the soil surface and not be retained by the soil. Overall, effects of deforestation cannot be offset by the contribution of the practice to development. While it is logical that progress is very much needed by mankind, it must also be noted that nature knows no defeat. Destruct it and it would certainly retaliate, one way or another. Pollution is rapidly growing along with population. Forests are greatly helping reduce the amount of pollutants in the air. So, the depletion of these groups of trees is greatly increasing the risk that carbon monoxide would reach the atmosphere and result in the depletion of the ozone layer, which in turn results to global warming. 5. SOLUTION OF DEFORESTATION ReforestingÂÂ   this is especially popular in Vietnam, where most of their forests were destroyed during the war. Now, every pupil has to plant a tree and look after it. BansÂÂ   generally, people want a ban on the logging of ancient-growth forests and possibly compensating companies for not logging certain areas. Sustainable ForestsÂÂ   using forest and the animals and plants that live in them in ways that do not permanently damage them. This could mean taking only as much timber or other products as the forests can support so that they will continue to be productive in future years. RecyclingÂÂ   an option for the wealthier countries in the world to cut down on their consumption of forest products in general. Protected AreasÂÂ   environmental organisations like WWF and Friend of the Earth can offer legal protection for certain areas by campaigning and informing governments over the necessity to protect a proportion of the world forests from destruction. ProduceÂÂ   an increase in demand for products which have their origin in tropical rainforests e.g. body creams, bath oils, sweets, fruits and nuts, would make the forests more secure, as a large number of trees are needed to produce a large yield. False Solutions:ÂÂ  1. Sustainable Commercial Logging On a governmental level, attempted solutions to deforestation caused by the timber industry have emphasised the necessity of supporting sustainable timber extraction. Such approaches assume, without supporting evidence, that rainforests can be used as an industrial resource base for timber on a sustainable basis. This has resulted in more rather than less deforestation. The International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) has had to acknowledge that serious attempts at sustainable management of tropical rainforests for timber production are on a world scale, negligible. As well as the technical obstacles to sustainability, the industry has shown itself to be unable to operate free from corruption. The only systematic attempt to disclose such corruption has been in Papua New Guinea, where a recent inquire concluded that there can be no doubt that the timber industry, by its very nature, is conducive to acts of a criminal nature and acts contrary to law and proper government administration. The Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP), the first major international initiative to tackle tropical deforestation, was launched in 1985 by the UNs Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), The World Resources Institute, the World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme. It claimed to offer a cure for tropical deforestation and its supposed causes, but its flaws were apparent from the outset. It was based on the assumption that poverty and overpopulation are the main underlying causes of tropical deforestation and failed to recognise the role of the developed countries. It paid lip service to the role of landlessness and destructive development, but made no real attempt to deal with them. The TFAP regarded deforestation as a result of too little government control and called for all rainforests to eventually come under government jurisdiction. Rather than calling for reforms to inequitable land ownership, the TFAP often requires annexation of traditional lands for governmen t forestry estates.ÂÂ   Donor countries are becoming unwilling to fund TFAP projects. Peru, Colombia, Panama and Argentina have received less than 10% of the funding required for their national TFAP projects. The US Senate is now refusing to fund the TFAP at all, and Britain has said it will withdraw from the Plan entirely unless coordination of the TFAP is moved out of the FAO. 3. The Limits of Reserve Strategies A significant proportion of tropical biodiversity would already be lost if nature reserves, often initiated by private conservation organisations, had not been established. However, all too often indigenous peoples, living harmoniously with their environment, have been expelled from protected areas or subjected to controls that have led to the disintegration of their cultures. It is a misconception to believe that nature reserves can conserve the greater proportion of the genetic diversity of tropical rainforests, where the number of individuals of each species per unit area tends to be low, but the total number of species can be enormous. On average, ten hectares of lowland tropical rainforest in South East Asia will contain more tree species than the whole of North America. It is therefore inevitable that any large-scale projects which destroy rainforests will lead to the extinction of hundreds of species. Only by providing the widest possible protection for the remaining primary rainforests will it be possible to save the greater part of the Earths biological diversity from extinction. Strictly protected nature reserves can only be a supportive measure in an overall programme for the protection of rainforest ecosystems. The creation of nature reserves must not be used as justification for the destructive exploitation of unprotected rainforest areas.ÂÂ   4. The International Biodiversity Programme The World Bank is pursuing the goal of a global Biodiversity Action Programme. Like the TEAP, this plan fails to confront underlying causes of biodiversity loss, and is likely to worsen the problem it is supposed to solve. Loss of biodiversity in tropical regions is due to the trend towards replacement of traditional species-rich agriculture and forestry with monocultures. Yet under the Biodiversity Programme, monocultures would be encouraged. The Programme sees the setting aside of reserves as the solution to the problem, but the minimum size required for viable areas of tropical forest is unknown. Worse, the setting aside of reserves is likely to be used as an excuse for the unrestricted exploitation of unprotected areas. The Programme would also increase the control of biodiversity by the North at the expense of the South. TOWARDS REALISTIC SOLUTIONS: Alternatives to destructive exploitation of tropical forests are to be found in small-scale initiatives coming from the grass roots in tropical countries, not from ill-conceived large-scale prestige projects such as the TFAP 1. Recognising the Rights of Traditional Owners. The Australian Rainforest Memorandum, produced by the Rainforest Information Centre and endorsed by over 40 non-governmental organisations, asserts that: The right to cultural survival for all tribal peoples is inviolable. All possible efforts should be made to support and safeguard their rights and those of other forest dwellers, in particular the right to security of land tenure.ÂÂ  About one thousand rainforest cultures still exist. Nearly all of them are in conflict with the development strategies of the dominant social classes and international development agencies that have taken control of their lands and who consistently ignore their basic rights and often even their very existence. It is significant that the most successful projects to save rainforests are those which have been carried out in cooperation with the traditional owners of the forests. In Papua New Guinea and Ecuador, the Rainforest Information Centre and other organisations have been involved in schemes which support the legitimate development aspirations of traditional landowners with small-scale autonomous projects. In 1990, the Colombian Government gave back half its Amazonian territory to its rightful Indian owners, acknowledging that they were the best guardians of the forest. In Malaysia, Indonesia and the many other countries where the rights of traditional owners have been ignored, attempts to save rainforests have been uniformly unsuccessful. 2. Non-Timber Values The economic value of keeping rainforests is often overlooked. Rainforests provide essential and renewable sources of fruits, starches, oils, medicines, firewood, animal products, building materials and other projects when extraction is well-managed. However, the value of rainforest goods and services to local human populations is usually ignored in the economic analyses upon which development decisions are based because these societies often operate with little involvement in the cash economy. In many tropical countries, major sections of the population depend directly on intact rainforests for their daily needs. The people of Papua New Guinea, for instance, obtain 58% of their animal protein from rainforest areas. In large regions of West Africa, people until recently met 65% of their animal protein needs from rainforests. This situation changed as the forests were destroyed by the establishment of export plantations and the timber industry. Although the careful management of non-timber forest products has considerable national and international; potential, these resources are being lost through the destruction of the tropical forests. In the Amazon, over two million people depend on rubber, Brazil nuts and other minor forest products without damaging the biological integrity of the rainforest. Recent studies have shown that the value of non-timber forest products often far exceeds the value of timber in tropical forests. A study in the rainforests of Peru showed that the economic value of the minor forest products, including fruits, resins and medicines which were actually being marketed, exceeded the value of use the forest for timber by nine to one. H