Food Fair Essay

The food industries are considered as one of the most important Arabic & Foreign Industries in the world. Over the years, these industries have developed in various degrees technologically and economically and have over the last 5 decades incorporated many international changes. Their productions have had spread throughout the Arab world and internationally. The products of these industries have grown as well as the raw materials used in the production process, leading to a diverse development in the food industries. The Basic Workings of a Food Fair: Before we can begin planning a fair, we must envision a general idea about the event so that our planning can be organized, efficient, and effective. Because such a wide variety of activities can be part of a fair and because a fair can emphasize any number of topics related to anything, it’s important to think about the kind of fair you want to hold before you jump in and begin sending out media alerts. Her we decided to do a food fair on the fair grounds near the Damascus airport high way which will take place in the following: Days from 06/06/2008 > 09/06/2008. From 5 o’clock until 11 o’clock Determining the features of a food fair: Once our organization decides to hold a food fair, you should begin planning by determining the kind of event you want to hold. The central considerations are the following: †¢Location †¢Time of year †¢Length †¢Purpose †¢Activities Location: A food fair can be held indoors or outdoors, and there are advantages and disadvantages to both. Outdoors, the enjoyment of attendees is affected by the weather, be it precipitation or temperature. The event itself may also be affected, so we will need a convenient rain site if we decide to hold our event outside. Furthermore, our organization’s displays as well as the displays of vendors, booths, or demonstrations will need to be securely anchored in case of wind and protected from rain if the event is rain or shine. Holding the fair indoors virtually frees us from weather concerns (barring bad weather that would prevent people from attending the event), but attendance may be limited by the size of the building and the availability of parking or other access at the event. Access to indoor facilities may also require the payment of fees, whereas parks and other public areas are often available for free if we give advance notice. An indoor venue may provide ready access to electricity, water, and restrooms, which may not be as convenient in some outdoor locations (but which we may need to provide for an event that focuses on food). An outdoor event may more readily attract the attention of passers-by and may draw curious people who just happen to see the banners or an assembly of people. In many cases, the location of the event may be dictated by the purpose and activities of the fair Time of year: A food fair can be held during any season of the year, but spring, summer, and fall offer the best opportunities for a good turnout. Spring is often a good choice because the event could coincide with the Earth Day (April 20). Summer is a good choice as well because of warm weather and because many fruits and vegetables are in season. People often have more free time during the summer, too, because of the long days. Autumn often offers the best weather, and the focus on the harvest also creates a nice context for festivals that focus on food. Length: food fairs can be held for any amount of time ranging from an afternoon to a weekend to a three-day or a week-long event. When determining the length of time and day(s) of the week we hold our food fair, bearing in mind the following: Availability of volunteers and other resources A fair held on a weekday or that extends beyond the weekend may create conflicts with the work schedules of many willing volunteers. Similarly, our organization may have limited resources (including brochures, handouts, merchandise, and money), which restrict the length of the event. Conflicts with community observances Although holidays usually guarantee days off for volunteers and attendees, they may be less-than-ideal times to hold a food fair given the frequency of community events that may be held on those days. We want our event to be one of only several events to ensure media coverage and full participation by the community. Availability of vendors In small communities, vendors who become involved as sellers at a food fair may be able to spare staff for an afternoon, day-long, or weekend event but will need to limit their participation if the fair lasts too long. Similarly, they may have a limited amount of merchandise to sell or may be limited by suppliers in other ways that would affect how long they can participate. If we choose to have vendors and plan to hand out information or make merchandise of our own available, we will want a wide variety of materials that can meet the demands of attendees. Better to have a shorter event that lives up to its billing than to have a longer event in which there is a steady decline in vendors and information available for interested individuals. Purpose: Food fairs do have a built-in focus: the event is a celebration of the Food lifestyle, and the focus is on food. For some fairs, education about Healthy Food through food sampling, cooking demonstrations, nutrition booths and lectures, may be the purpose of the event. For other events, however, education about human health through food-related activities may be the focus. The purpose of our event will shape the kind of fair we ultimately want to hold and the kinds of activities we want to include in the event. A food fair can also have a general purpose and include elements of many different aspects. We can combine booths, varied displays, and vendors to create a fair that addresses many interests. A quick survey of the many food fairs that are already taking place in the World reveals that there is no prescription for a successful food fair. But having a purpose in mind will assist us in determining the activities for the fair and prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by the sheer variety of activities that can be part of a food fair. Activities: Preliminary thoughts about the type of fair we want to have should include consideration of the kinds of activities we will include to attract the public to our event. The range of activities that are appropriate for a food fair is limited only by imagination. Cooking demonstrations cooking demonstrations are a great addition or centerpiece to a food fair. The demonstration could show attendees how to create quick meals or how to use popular Herbal ingredients. The demonstrations could focus on themes, such as main courses, holiday meals, or desserts, or we could create a series of demonstrations that take place throughout the day. A local chef or cookbook author might be interested in putting together such a demonstration. We might also try to book a well-known chef or cookbook author to attract people to our fair. We will need to plan ahead for a cooking demonstration. WE may need to prepare ingredients ahead of time, especially if the site lacks access to running water. We should find out whether our site will have access to electricity and ask about other methods of cooking that may be allowed (for example, gas grill or open flame) before we make other plans for the demonstration. Speakers A well-known local or national vegetarian advocate will attract many people to a food fair because many people will come specifically to hear the speaker or purchase his or her book. Having a speaker highlight the food fair is also a good way to kick off or complete an event. Another option is to have a panel of speakers discussing specific issues or taking questions from the audience. Speakers usually charge a fee for speaking, and there may be other details (for example, travel and accommodations) that factor into whether we have a speaker at our food fair. A speaker will need a sound system, and we will need to organize the fair so that a crowd can gather in one place to see and hear the speaker. If an event involves vendors, exhibits, and booths that are going to continue operation during the speaker, we’ll likely need a separate adjacent area for a speaker. An event with a set itinerary, or an event that is held in a large building with access to different rooms or partitioned areas, however, will not pose this problem. We want to provide the speaker with an opportunity to address a crowd of listeners, so if we plan more than one speaker, we should arrange the food fair and its schedule to highlight each speaker and try to ensure that there will be an appropriately sized audience for each. If we are uncertain whether each speaker will get a crowd of participants, we should organize the speakers into a panel instead, and highlight that as the center point of the fair. Music Music can be a focal point or a backdrop during a food fair. Fairs and music seem to go hand in hand: the presence of singing or instrumentalists adds a festive touch to a food fair and alerts passersby that the fair is taking place. Exhibits Free-standing, self-explanatory exhibits or staffed booths can provide a variety of information for fair attendees. These booths may offer free samples or free information. A variety of booths widens the appeal of the food fair, and exhibits can include: †¢Conserved food products. †¢Oil and ghee produces. †¢Canned and conserved products. †¢Dairy and cheese products. †¢Meat products. †¢Sugar, sweets, biscuits, and chocolate products. †¢Ice cream products. †¢Coffee – Tea – Herbs. †¢Poultry and fish products. †¢Mineral, carbonated water and juice products. †¢Vegetable and fruit products. †¢Pasta and cereal products. †¢Production lines. †¢Packing and packaging machines and related materials. †¢Raw materials for food. †¢Cooling and freezing equipment. †¢National Arab and international supervisory boards and companies. Once well established, a food fair may even attract national or international makers of foods we will certainly want to set up an exhibit that features our own organization, with information about meetings, plenty of handouts and literature, and a sign-up sheet for our organization’s mailing list. Creating a marketing plan: Once we have a general idea about the kind of fair we want to have, we need to create a marketing plan by taking an inventory of the skills and resources we have within our group and our community. This assessment gives us a starting point for assigning organizational tasks and generating publicity for the fair. We have to be sure to consider media, organizations, and businesses in our country as well as in other countries and cities. Media: Local radio and television stations, newspapers, and other publications will be key for generating publicity for our event. We should plan on creating public service announcements, placing advertisements, and arranging interviews not only to provide details about the event but also to generate interest about the fair. We might also consider contacting and placing ads in larger publications in order to advertise in the countries and cities that are around us because we want our fair to be local and world wide. We have to be sure to note the deadlines for submission of public service announcements and advertisements in relation to our fair to ensure that our efforts are timely. Community resources: Our advertisement is going to be mostly for investors, industrialists, merchants, business men and officials. Through intensive campaigns by mail, e-mail or through the internet. Including direct phone calls with the people that are interested in this kind of fairs and the official and concerned bodies that are Arab and foreign. At the same time we will be printing flyers for the fair which will help advertising for it. Also printing invitation cards for some governmental bodies like the prime minister or his deputy or the minister of industry, also for VIP business men and industrialists. Skills: Early on in the planning of our fair, it is helpful to find out what skills the members of our group or other participants have that can be put to use when organizing the fair. An artistic member might be interested in creating a logo, banners, and signage for the event and determining where to display them, or we could simply use a professional assistance from any graphic and advertising company. Creating a budget: Budgeting is one element of food fair brainstorming that we should think through fully before planning begins. We have to be sure to take an inventory of what our group already has (merchandise, literature, signs, for example) to avoid unnecessary budgeting and spending and to help us determine what we need to order. The following is a checklist of items that we may need to pay for to successfully organize and hold a food fair: †¢Advertisements. †¢Cooking demonstration expense. †¢Courier and flyer-posting expenses. †¢Demonstration supplies. †¢Lecture expense. †¢Merchandise expenses. †¢Office supplies. †¢Parking fees. †¢Permit fees. †¢Photocopies. †¢Portable toilets. †¢Postage. †¢Posters, flyers, and stickers. †¢Programs. †¢Printing. †¢Rentals (Equipment [tables, chairs, tents, tools, video or sound equipment, fire extinguishers, etc. ]; Space). †¢Trash removal/recycling fee. Creating an overview of planning details: Planning a food fair involves the coordination of many details and the combining of different elements to create a whole event. Failure to keep track of even one of these details or elements will leave holes in our planning and gaps at the event itself. Keeping track of details and creating a planning schedule that prompts us to take care of specific tasks. A general rule of thumb is that planning for a food fair should begin 8 to 10 months or even a year before the actual event. Food Fair Planning: Now that we have determined the purpose of our fair and the activities we want to include, we are ready to start booking a site, sponsors, vendors, and other participants. For our site we will be using the fair ground in Damascus at the airport high way in order to set a date for the exhibition and visiting hours. Now during the process of advertising for the fair we will be asked about many things from the exhibitors and they are either direct or through e-mail, of course our answers must be logical and convincing: Examples of our clients questions: 1. What are the things that this fair refers to? †¢Canned and conserved products. †¢Conserved food products. †¢Oil and ghee products. †¢Dairy and cheese products. †¢Meat products. †¢Sugar and sweets products. †¢Chocolate and biscuit. †¢Ice cream products. †¢Coffee – Tea – Herbs. †¢Poultry and fish products. †¢Mineral, carbonated water and juice products. †¢Vegetable and fruit products. †¢Pasta and cereal products. †¢Production lines. †¢Packing and packaging machines and related materials. †¢Raw materials for food. †¢Cooling and freezing equipment. †¢Banks, investment and finance institutions. †¢National, Arab, and international supervisory boards and companies. 2. What are the services that the fair will deliver for participating companies? †¢There will be a mobile center for business men which will offer (phone, fax, e-mail) services to help and aid them with their supplies. †¢There will be a set of meetings between the exhibitors by a special program so they can know each other. †¢There will be a media center for business men, representatives and delegates either form the press or the T. V and Arabic and Foreign news agencies. †¢Transportation will be provided for exhibitors and visitors concerning their requests and for a special fee for exhibitors. †¢We will offer all the fair’s accommodation and services. From setting booths and stands to every single need for the exhibitors which include: 1. Flight reservation and hotel accommodation. 2. Putting the name and address of the company in the fair guide. 3. Including the name of the company in the list of participants in the fair’s website. 4. Offering help and support in building the sections of the fair (special needs). 3. Where and when is the fair going to take place? It will be held on Damascus fair grounds: From 06/04/2008 > 09/04/2008 From 5 o’clock until 11 o’clock 5. What are the laws and regulations that the will be applied on the exhibitors? There are a set of rules and regulations exhibitors are required to do, and the most important rule is that for accepting a participant in the fair, rental of the stand and ending the contract. It also can contain information about the dimensions of the stand and other services. Also one of the important points that should be focused on when participating in an exhibition is cancellation, we mean by that if some company wanted to cancel its participation there will be an amount of money to be deducted from its payments and that amount is decreased whenever that cancelation was sooner. 6. Prices for participating? To know how much a square meter costs we have to know how much the fair would cost: 1st. from organizational aspect: -We have rented a hall that is 1000 square meters: 560 square meters for stands and booth and 460 square meters for passages. -The hall costs 1000,000 SYP after we agreed with the fair grounds and international markets company. -equipments costs: 1. Carpets: 600000 SYP. 2. Setting and preparing the stands: 400000 SYP. 3. Lighting: 250000 SYP. 4. Sound equipments: 200000 SYP. 5. Heating and A/C’s: 250000 SYP. -Employees for the fair: 200000 SYP. -Hiring Guards: 150000 SYP. -Decorations for our company: 300000 SYP. -The opening: 200000 SYP. 2nd. Managerial aspect: Media: 1. Magazines and news papers: 300000 SYP. 2. Radio and T. V: 115500 SYP. 3. Road Ads: 300000 SYP. Office work: -Mail-internet-fax-salaries-transportation-stationary: 300000 SYP. Printing costs (brochures, booklets, Fair Guide): 300000 SYP. Total = 4865500 SYP. Organization profit approximately 41% = 2014500 SYP. Final Total = 6880000 SYP. Now by dividing the Total on the part that the booths and stands are going to be which is 560 square meters = 12285 SYP. Now for the price in USD we divide on 50 SYP. It becomes: 245 USD per square meter. Studying the financial feasibility for this fair: We have decided a price for each type of stand we have (Stand with one side, Stand with two sides, stand with three sides and a stand with four sides): 1. Stand with one side including its corners they are 43 stands in total and each one is 8 square meters: 43X8X200=68800 USD 2. Stand with two sides which are 18 stand costs 300 USD each: 18X8X300=43200 USD 3. Stand with three sides which are 8 stands costs 350 USD each: 8X8X350=22400 USD 4. Stand with four sides (island stand) which are 1 stand costs 400 USD: 1X8X400= 3200 USD Total: 68800+43200+22400+3200=137600 USD. 137600X50=6880000 SYP. To the profit: 6880000-430000=2580000 could just transfer it to our bank account. 8. Is there any travel agent which we can trust on our reservations and transportation and any other services that we might need specially if there was VIP’s? We have decided at the beginning of our fair planning that there should be a travel and tourism agent which will do the following: Confirm hotel reservations, insure that there are transportations from the hotel to the airport and vice versus specially for VIP’s, do all the necessary shipping for the organization, making sure to do all the reception and farewell’s for the participators, booking restaurants, doing tours in the city, confirming travel tickets, making that there are guides during the tours and booking cars or buses. Our merchandise to offer: Space which has to be at least 8 square meters Including: switches, carpet for passage ways and inside the stand, lighting, a board with the company name, electricity, cleaning and guarding, a table, 2 chairs, 3 shelves, plastic name badges for managers or company owners, carton badges for exhibitors. Also we will include information about the company in the fair guide and CD in both languages Arabic and English. During the days of the fair: The organizing company should follow up with the exhibitors during the days of the fair through a sales man in the company because the follow up is a very important way in gaining the clients trust. And in order to know if the fair is a success or a failure we distribute a questionnaire showing how they benefited from the fair and if they are satisfied with the results. After that we collect the questionnaires to determine the points of strength and weaknesses to avoid in the next fair. After the fair: The follow-up: Its considered one of the most important process, and successful organizing for it Is one of the factors in a successful fair, so that the organizing company should not delay any check for the interviews that occurred in the fair because it’s the first step for building long term public relationships. At a fair clients are divided into categories and they are: -actual customers. -possible customers. -regular customers. -important customers. The follow-up consists of: -sending a thank you note for visiting. -sending the information that both sides have agreed on. -attending all the meetings and dates that have been discussed before. -studying the expenses as a hole. -studying the contracts that has taken place at the fair. -comparison between the basic plan and actual activity. -studying the answers about the survey.

Health Care Museum Essay

HEALTH CARE MUSEUM The Health Care Museum exhibit is to acknowledgment the five most significant developments in the evolution of healthcare in the United States. Over the years we’ve seen a rapid growth in the Health Care industry that’s both good and bad. After my research there are several areas I would like to portray for my exhibit debut. The five most significant developments are The Insured, the Underinsured, & the Uninsured, Medications, Prevention, Technology and Health Care Delivery. EXHIBIT A: The Insured, the Underinsured, & the Uninsured Insurance plays a huge part of healthcare development over the years. We have laws in place to help patients who are insured, underinsured and uninsured to received treatments. There a lot of people who struggle to keep up with the increasing costs of health care insurance, but there are plan that’s affordable to cover their medical expenses. The impact insurance has in United States is really big because â€Å"the number of people without health care has increased†. The establishing future in Health Care insurance remains uncertain because many people today still don’t have health insurance. I do believe that the health care reform will help in that case, but it may take some time to see the results. EXHIBIT B: Medications Medications play a very big important role into the development of the Health Care Industry. With the advancement of medication we have seen a momentous decrease in the number of people that were hospitalized or caused death because they did not acquired the proper medication. Science is the main reason why we are so ahead in medicine, â€Å"advances in medical science† help protect most diseases from spreading. Medicines can cure, preclude, or even stop an outbreak or a virus. The most notable development of medicine is that it comes in many different shapes and size. One can take medicine in a use of a pill, liquid such as syrup and exercise is a form of medication. . EXHIBIT C: Prevention Prevention has to be the most important development thus far because if we don’t have any control over transferrable diseases from spreading â€Å"Ebola†, then we all are at risk of an epidemic of disease that’s infectious. Around the world we have community associates and health care providers that’s willing to educate the public about the importance and the consequences of a transmittable disease. We all have been working together to prevent the spreading of dangerous disease. Some of the simple task we can do to prevent spreading disease is as simple as washing your hands constantly. EXHIBIT D: Technology If it wasn’t for technology the United State Health Care System wouldn’t be as great as it is today. Technology has a great impact in all of the different health fields in the industry. Since technology is improving constantly the possibilities are endless as to what we can use it for. The most important part in regards to technology in Health Care is the ability to obtain very important medical information. Many different departments in the healthcare field are using technology a lot of different ways. The most common use is to reach out to the â€Å"broader populations,† connect with patients virtually, and most importantly public awareness. EXHIBIT E: Health Care Delivery Reforming our health care delivery system to improve the quality and value of care is essential to address escalating costs, poor quality, and increasing numbers of Americans without health insurance coverage. Reforms should improve access to the right care at the right time in the right setting. They should keep people healthy and prevent common, avoidable complications of illnesses to the greatest extent possible. Thoughtfully constructed reforms would support greater access to health-improving care – in contrast to the current system, which encourages more tests, procedures, and treatments that are at best unnecessary and at worst harmful. In conclusion, as we all know the health care industry has grown drastically over the years. The five most significant developments is not only important factors in the health care field, but they’re also important in today’s society. For example, The Insured, the Underinsured, & the Uninsured plays a huge part in today’s world because of the sky rocking health cost and the fact that not everyone can afford it. Medications are also very important since we all want to feel better when we are ill. References Access to Health Care Coalition (2001). Closing the gap: Improving access to health care in Michigan. Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan. Retrieved October 13, 2014 from http://bcbsm.com/blues/pdf/access_to_hc.pdf American Hospital Association (1997). Hospital statistics: A comprehensive summary of U. S. hospitals. Chicago, IL: Author. Institute for the Future (2000). Health and health care 2010: The forecast, the challenge. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Health Statistics. Health U.S. 2010: With Special features on death and dying. Hyattsville MD:CDC, National Center for Health Statistics, 2014

Auditory system and optical system Essay Example for Free

Auditory system and optical system Essay Two of the most important sensory systems in human body are optical system and auditory system. Optical system or sometime called visual system involved in the process of taken amount of stimuli and transfer it into some figure that we can perceive as images that make senses. Auditory systems involved in sound wave that transduced by drum ear into some kind of vibration that eventually gets converted back into wave what we perceive as noise. There are a lot of similarities in their mechanisms of how they gather, carry and prepare those informations from sensory neurons. However, there are also a lots of differences on how each system operated and where does it takes information into difference area of the brain. For both systems, optical and auditory, the information comes from our environment in many forms. For example, optical system detected all still images and image in motion as far as human eyes can see. The auditory is ready to absorb any noise or sound for twenty-four hours a day. Their structures and mechanisms are similar in a way they gather information, prepare and perceive those information into something that make sense in our brain. After the sensory neurons carry information into specific system each detect, transduce and coding those information before they being send to central system, the brain. Both systems have similar structure that transmit those information to the final destination, the brain. Even though, both system basic the same. Each system perceive those information that perceive from sensory neuron in totally different way. For instance, optical system receive visible spectrum of wave of electromagnetic radiation. The frequency of wave created color and distinguish brightness by amplitude. In auditory system, the frequency of wave created tone ( pitch) and loudness by amplitude. For the optical system, the cornea gather light rays that pass into inferior of the eyes. The information such as light’s brightness, hue/color or motion are translate into coded neural impulse. The codes then carried by optic nerves to the brain. However, the information from one side are send to the opposite side of hemisphere but stimuli go to the same side hemisphere. The optical information are stored in occipital lobes where it was process and try to make sense of those information base on experience and individual perception. For the auditory system, the sound’s wave goes through the ear canal and hit the ear drum. They activate the the drum and the information being send through the fluid as a result it bents the hair cell in the cochlea and the information then translate into neural impulse. The intensity of sound waves determine by how many hair cell are fire as well as how frequently they fire. The auditory information then carried by auditory nerve from one side of the ear are sent to the opposite hemisphere. The auditory information are stored in temporal lobes where it was process and try to make sense of those information base on past experience and pattern. In conclusion, the optical and auditory systems have basically the same structure and mechanism but they both different in how they gathering, preparing, detecting, and translating those information. Each system are unique and unbelievably complex structure that we need to learn more. Auditory system and optical system. (2016, Jun 17).

Module C - Educating Rita - Moving Into The World Essay

Module C - Educating Rita - Moving Into The World - Essay Example â€Å"Everything I know--and you must listen to this--is that I know absolutely nothing† – Educating Rita This quote aptly sums up the experiences of those venturing into a new world as the very experience tends to challenge and at times question everything one knows including their values and beliefs. The experience of venturing into a new world often leads to encountering various challenges that detain attitudes and beliefs that ultimately define an individual’s psychological dispositions, however history bears testimony to the fact that such challenges or obstacles encountered by individuals are often short term and yield innumerable benefits in the long run. Willy Russel's Educating Rita offers an intriguing perspective on the manner in which Rita - a young and ambitious hairdresser from Liverpool, undergoes various trials and transformations in the pursuit of goals and manages to get various rewards in the forms of life changing qualities such as self-confid ence, independence and education which she so longed for. Her exhilarating journey is in many ways similar to that of the characters Ernesto Guevara and Alberto Granado, in the MotorCycle diaries. The transition into a new world is almost synonymous to encountering endless challenges which individuals are forced to fathom in the midst of their journey as they adapt to their new surroundings. The composer Willy Russell has creatively portrayed this in the opening scene in the play through various symbolic elements. Here â€Å"we see† Rita is presented struggling to open the door to Frank’s office. This gives â€Å"us† an insight on the very pinnacle of Rita’s character and the manifest challenges she is likely to face as she strives to ‘enter’ the ‘new world’. The stage directions used here emphasize the stark differences and the characterisations of the two – signifying, Rita’s seeming state of ignorance and lack of dexterity to manoeuvre her way into the world unknown to her. On being unable to open the door she exclaims â€Å"It's that stupid bleedin' handle on the door. You wanna get it fixed!† The use of slang and the tone of her voice shock not only Frank but take the reader by surprise, since Rita seems completely oblivious to the social conventions and the use of formal speech. Thus this enables â€Å"us† the audience to paint a more precise image of Rita’s boldness and her values. In addition the stage directions used in this instance that focus on Frank’s confused face further emphasizes her naivety and exposes the intricacies of her character and attitudes. The moving into a new world despite age or background is one that requires sacrifice. Defying dominant socio-cultural norms is an inevitable and inherent part of the struggles encountered by those venturing into a new world. In Educating Rita, the challenges faced by Rita are highlighted through the var ious dialogues between her and Frank in relation to the complications of her background, education and marital life. Rita is depicted inept to pursue her studies due to her husband’s disapproval of her ambitions and beliefs. These obstacles ultimately stand in the form societal pressure or the pressure to conform to dominant cultural expectations during her schooling years. This is highlighted in the text â€Å"See, if I'd started takin' school seriously I would've had to become different from me mates, an' that's not allowed† – this indicates the social pressure experienced by Rita forbidding her to defy the set social standards and

Decision Support System Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Decision Support System - Assignment Example The clinical field is one of the areas that the management has to handle a lot of information from their daily records, patient responses or even from the social media platforms. Notably, a number of health firms have deployed data driven DSS to streamline their decision making process, providing an opportunity to impact changes within the organizational level. It is on this rationale that DSS becomes recommendable for any clinics that intend to remain efficient in the big data era. In the era of big data, organizations have been faced by a number of challenges while making their management decisions. Notably, organizations use data to inform their decision making process as one way of ensuring accuracy and reliability in business development. However, clinical organizations are experiencing a challenge in handling large loads of data that are now available for decision making. A number of health facilities have to collect data from all its branches and use this data to monitor their business performance and make future decision for their operation. All data including information from patient records, customer feedbacks and other departments are crucial while launching an organization’s strategic plan. In the presence of big data, it storage, processing, analysis and presentation are present challenges for the management (Turban, Sharda, Delen & Efraim, 2007). Secondly, big data requires a lot of time to process while business decisions are time sensitiv e in a dynamic business environment. Therefore, managers need important efficient mechanisms of acting on available information. According to a study by MIT, many corporations have either already adopted a data-centric model for decision making, or indicated that implementation of such a model was a top priority (Turban, Sharda, Delen & Efraim, 2007). Top performing businesses are five times more likely to use

Individual Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Individual - Essay Example This paper will discuss how entrepreneurs use creativity to develop business ideas and innovations. Entrepreneurs are able to use creativity through managing risks and uncertainties. This is through analyzing ideas and determining whether they are worth investing in. They then determine the best strategies to use and how to maximize returns through the use of scarce resources. This plays a significant role in enabling them to capture value from innovation (Van and Becker, 2004). Entrepreneurs are able to use creativity through identifying the opportunities for change. Currently, the market has become dynamic. Different aspects keep on arising thereby, creating gaps that can be used to develop ideas (Hoang and Antoncic, 2003). Entrepreneurs are able to manipulate these opportunities to come up with creative ideas. For instance, they are able to observe the tastes and preferences of the customers and note when the customers are changing their consumption behavior. Entrepreneurs pinpoint such opportunities and taps them, thereby coming up with a business idea. Through brainstorming and enquiring from relevant sources, they are able to come up with innovative ideas which attract the interests of the target market (Knutsen, 2002). According to Van and Becker (2004), entrepreneurs calculate the costs of taking up a bright idea forward against the potential gains if that idea succeeds. They know clearly that failure is an intrinsic part of the process. However, they always calculate the risks in order to minimize it completely. In addition, they ensure that they have all materials required to exploit the opportunities in order to gain the necessary benefits (Van and Becker, 2004). Entrepreneurs are able to come up with creative ideas through being alert to changes in the external environment (Voudouris et al., 2007). Whether entering a new market, introducing new products or services, or initiating innovative technologies, they always think of novel ways

Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Finance - Essay Example Moreover, an increase in EPS is also increasing dividend paid to NEXT plc shareholders, thus satisfying more the shareholders. This increase in EPS is also tested for quality based on the information from cash flows. Increase in EPS is strengthening positive operating cash flows; as increase in EPS is sometimes shown only on income statement and cash flow statement provides real picture with negative cash flows for operations (Next Plc, 2012).. This increase in EPS in line directors stated objective to provide sustainable long term growth in EPS. For this purpose, NEXT has adopted two strategies; one to increase the sales of the company by increasing the product quality and new stores along with increased cost control. The second strategy is buying back of outstanding shares. Buy backed shares reduces the number of shares outstanding in the market and hence, allows greater proportion of net income to individual share, thus it will lead to same earnings with less outstanding shares, t herefore lower EPS. EPS increase also puts positive impact in share price (though not always) and has also benefitted NEXT plc. CORPORATE BONDS FROM BALANCE SHEET For year 2012 NEXT plc has increased corporate bonds liability amounting to 652.1 million as compare to 471.2 million in year 2011. In the current year firm has issued 10 year 325m bond. Increase in corporate bonds has increased interest expense to 28m (Next Plc, 2012). Increase corporate bonds indicate that firm is extending its debt source of financing as against equity financing to take tax benefit. Equity financing is the most expensive source of financing; therefore, firms are more inclined to debt financing that is relatively cheaper as per Pecking theory (Zhao, Katchova, and Barry, 2004). Moreover, increase in debt facilitates firms firm with cash flows without giving any rights of decision making. Since in difficult economic situation firms have to make tough decisions therefore, management is interested to maintai n decision making more in their own hands. In addition to this, increase in debt gives the opportunity to firms to take advantage of the leverage concept which in return increases its Return on Equity (ROE) (Booth, Aivazian, Demirgue-Kunt and Maksimovic, 2001). This makes the firm more attractive for investors against competitors and it gives a positive signal to the investors according to Signal Theory. Benefit of this strategy has started to be reflecting as NEXT plc share has been ranked as the second best performing firms on FTSE-100 companies and has led its earnings per share increased by compound rate of 18 percent. NEXT Plc has been increasing its debt source of financing to facilitate two objectives; first, to tender cash flows for operations and capital investment. And second to gain the sustainable long term growth in EPS. To continue growth strategy in terms of location, product and sales firm and also EPS, NEXT plc has planned to increase the debt further and has also i ncreased its bank facility by 300 million for 5 years. Moreover, NEXT plc has planned to increase debt max by 700m in order to support the share buyback strategy. REPURCHASE OF OWN SHARES FROM STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS NEXT plc has been following to continue share buy back from on market and off market. In year 2012 firm conducted in investment activity of buying back its own shares

Do concerns for safety influence the effectiveness of the outdoor Dissertation

Do concerns for safety influence the effectiveness of the outdoor learning environment for children - Dissertation Example In practice, it has been proved that the value of outdoor learning in improving the learning abilities of a child is unique. Still, because of safety reasons, barriers are often set in regard to outdoor learning activities, a problem appearing both in the context of school and the family. Moreover, the perceptions of people on the importance of outdoor learning seem to be differentiated. For certain people, the value of outdoor learning activities is unique allowing the child and the teenager to develop his cognitive skills. For others, these activities are just part of the learning process. This means that under certain terms, the limitation of these activities would be welcomed in order to serve a need of higher importance. Securing the health and safety of children and teenagers is considered as such need. The increase of accidents and violent incidents during outdoor learning activities worldwide seems to justify such trend. ... the teachers and the parents, are not fully aware of the value and the needs of these activities. It is suggested that the increase of outdoor learning activities worldwide is initiated, despite the high risks involved, under the terms that outdoor learning providers are appropriately trained for providing effective support to the children participating in such activities. Chapter One – Introduction 1.1 Overview of the study The study aims to present the various implications of the relationship between outdoor learning and safety. Particular emphasis is paid on the effects of safety on the design and quality of outdoor learning. The improvement of the learning skills of children and teenagers has been a key challenge for educators worldwide. Outdoor learning has been proved as a key tool for facing the above challenge. However, the development of outdoor learning around the world faces significant barriers. Most commonly, the need for ensuring the health and safety of children and teenager is used as a justification for preventing the expansion of outdoor learning. The above practice leads to the decrease of the value of childhood. Indeed, it has been supported that ‘childhood is becoming undermined by risk aversion’ (Gill 2007, p.10 in Bilton, 2010, p.27). At the same time, the concerns on children safety have led to the limitation of the freedom of children to travel to school alone. In a relevant research it has been estimated that ‘in 1970 a percentage of 80% of children aged 7 and 8 years used to travel to school on their own’ (Tovey 2007, p.3); in 1990 ‘this percentage has been reduced to just 10%’ (Tovey 2007, p.3). It is clear that safety has highly affected childhood. Outdoor learning

Prohibition and the Rise of Organized Crime Assignment

Prohibition and the Rise of Organized Crime - Assignment Example An action initiated by the government or by the court of law to renounce people from indulging in activities or behaviours that harm them may be termed as prohibition. On the face of it, this prohibition should prove beneficial and should serve the intended purpose. However the outcome may not be the same as desired. There can no better example of prohibition going awry and turning out to be a problem for the society than the Volstead Act of 1920 which banned the sale, manufacture, and transportation of alcohol in the United States from 1920 through 1933. In response to prohibition human beings do not abstain from the substance or refrain from the action so prohibited, rather they contrive to indulge in it, a situation that perpetuates organized crime. Simply put, the urge is so overwhelming that it does not permit any rational thinking. To serve the individual black-markets thrive. The positive correlation between prohibition and organized crime makes sense from the economics standpoint. Proscription will invariably lead to a demand supply mismatch of the product so prohibited. This is where the organized crime creeps in to cash in on the sparse supply. Analogous to competing firms in an industry, it is the gang wars in the dominion of the underworld which hold the society to ransom as different. In order to stamp their authority and maximize their illegal cash inflows these gangs indulge in organized crime. The menace spreads as government and law enforcement agencies are bribed to enable the cause of the gangsters. The aforesaid discussion leaves beyond doubt that prohibition perpetuates organized crime.

You may do two papers on one artist's Research Paper

You may do two papers on one artist's - Research Paper Example While his mother assisted him in appreciating art as a young boy of 12 years, working at his father’s barbershop opened him up to the business world and to social issues of his surroundings. Mentorship alone is not enough to develop and sharpen skills and thus Hunt went through schooling. The first formal training that Hunt attended was at Juniors School of Art Institute at Chicago and later he joined University of Illinois to further his studies. At this early age, Hunt began experimental sculptors from abstract though guided by the twentieth century’s artists. This made him impress the community around him and he joined several exhibitions like Artists of Chicago, Vicinity Show, and American Show. While in the American show, Museum of Modern Art purchased a piece for its collection. In 1962, he was the youngest artist to exhibit in Seattle World’s fair, which is an international survey exhibition. According to Richard Hunt as quoted in the Lubeznik centre, â€Å"My career in sculpture began in 1955. It was then, while still a student, I began to exhibit my sculpture around Chicago in all sorts of places-art fairs, small galleries, local art centres, and the like† (Lubeznik centre). Hunt describes his career in the next twelve years that followed this and how he grew in the area of sculptural development. In addition, his skills enabled him to develop as a private, independent studio based and self-generated artist. In 1974, Richard accepted to head the project of Thunderbird Park that had started in 1952 with his grandfather Mungo Martin. He later dropped the project and started his own studio to pursue his own career. According to Galleria Silecchia, â€Å"Among other public works, Richard was selected for a major installation at the Vancouver International Airport and was a part of a multi-artist commission to create the furnishings for the University of

Bsa 375 Week 2 Individual Paper Essay Example for Free

Bsa 375 Week 2 Individual Paper Essay IT Solutions: Proposal for New HR System By University of Phoenix BSA/375 09/02/2013 Proposal for New Human Resource System In our quest to ever better ourselves the IT department, of Riordan Manufacturing, is submitting this Request for Proposal to integrate a more sophisticated, state-of-the art, information systems technology in our Human Resources department. Riordan Manufacturing has always strived to better ourselves by keeping up with technology in all of our operating systems and our manufacturing systems. Our goal is to remain at the forefront of the manufacturing community as we keep leading the way in all of our business systems and, at the same time, keeping the feel of a customer friendly company. We want to make sure that our customers can feel safe in the knowledge that we will do what is necessary to fulfill their business needs. As of now, our Human Resource, (HR), Operating System, (OS), has fallen short of this goal. Please understand that the system that is in place, while it has the ability to complete the task at hand is not sufficient enough for our growing organization. Right now, we are running many separate applications to process all of the HR system requirements. This process is not only time consuming, but is not a cost efficient solution that this company is looking for. If we want to accomplish our goal we need to combine all the old HR systems into a single integrated application. The IT department is looking to complete this project in approximately six (6) months, so the new system can be utilized in the second quarter of next year. We want to have a prototype system available for testing in approximately two (2) months before final system deployment, for training and technical support purposes. Our goal is to have all training and any problems fixed one (1) month before start up. This way we will have time to apply any necessary changes to the system. The new HR system will have many applications that can be used across most of our other business systems from Marketing and Sales to Inventory and  Warehousing. We are hoping for companywide training to be completed within four (4) months of startup, making the new system available for all departments before the end of the third (3rd) quarter. Below are some requirements that will need to be accomplished so that the process of integrating the new HR system will go smoothly. Access the Stakeholders Involved in System Startup The first step in setting up the new Human Resource Application, (HRA), is to gather information about the system requirements and user needs from everyone that will be involved in the startup and rollout of the new system. The process of gathering information from involved stakeholders can be a tedious process if the wrong techniques are used. So, to expedite this in an orderly and timely manner we will be passing out questioners to all members of the Human Resource Department and to all Department heads. Using Questioners will help the IT department get an idea of what requirements are expected from the new system. It is not cost efficient to talk to each employee so, it would be very beneficial for all that every questioner is filled out in a timely manner. We will be emailed to each employee on Monday September 9th, 2013 and would like a response no later than Thursday September 12th, 2013, (for processing purposes). Questioners will also be available on the Employee Web Site under HR applications. Another technique of gathering the needed information will be to conduct group meetings with the HR department executives and managers. The IT department will be holding Joint Application Development, (JAD), sessions starting Monday September 16th, 2013. These sessions are managed processes that the IT department uses to gather information in an efficient, cohesive manner. We want to use team involvement so that we can gain a firm understanding of what you, the client, will want out of the new HR system. The JAD session will help all of us jointly develop the new system. Ensuring Successful Gathering of Project Information We, in the IT department, want to make sure that every system requirement that maybe be asked for will be deployed at the time of the system prototype introduction. To insure that this goal is accomplished we must gather correct, concise and relevant information from each of you, the stakeholders  involved in the system development. Gathering good information will help us develop the system molded to what you want. We understand that the information gathering process can be a daunting task, but with your help we can make this as painless as possible. Remember, without your input on this project the IT department cannot rollout a system that will be an effective tool for Human Resources and the rest of Riordan Manufacturing. The ability to gather good information is the most important process in all parts of every System Development Life Cycle, (SDLC), and with everyone’s support in this process the system rollout will go smoothly. Developing the Project Scope and Project Fea sibility Riordan Manufacturing wants all projects that go into development to be successful. If we want the new Human Resource system to be successful we will need to institute a project scope system. Even with the feedback and involvement of each stakeholder and the success of other projects delivered from the IT department there is a chance that this new system can still fail. At any given time there will be necessary changes to the project. These changes can have a negative effect, but our goal is to remain focused on the system requirements. We want to delivers the new system on time and under budget with the required functions that are expected. Our plan is to set up a system to manage key aspects of the new systems development: * Project Size – Understand how large this project will be * Project Goals – Make sure goals are set and achievable * Project Requirements – All system requirements are carried out To deliver a finished project that meets the goals above our Project Scope will need to follow a these five (5) steps: * Project Initiation – evaluate the need of the new system and deliver appropriate solutions. * Scope Planning – Create a feasible Work Breakdown Structure, (WBS) that charts all the work that will be done on this project. * Scope Definition – Working with you, the end user, expand in detail the work breakdown the will be needed. * Scope Verification – Timely scheduled work assessment and acceptability checks by the end user and the IT department during the SDLC of the new application. * Scope Change Control – Put a formal system in place to control any system changes that will take place. This will  limit Scope Creep, (Unauthorized access to changes to the system). As you can see, applying proper scope management will be crucial in the development of the new Human Resource system. Conclusion To stay as one of the leaders in manufacturing we must keep trying to evolve. While we at Riordan Manufacturing have strived to be the best in the industry there are occasions when we must look into ourselves and see what changes are needed so that we can remain an innovator in manufacturing techniques while still being a customer friendly organization. The current Human Resource system has fallen behind and is keeping us from maintaining all that we have set out to accomplish. Integrating a more sophisticated, state-of-the art, information system in our Human Resource department will accomplish more than just the above goal. It will streamline our business applications into an easy to use easily accessible system that will be cost efficient with little maintenance. This is what we have always strived to accomplish and this new system will keep us on track. With proper planning, creating a good project scope, gathering good, reliable and relevant information and with your constant in volvement throughout the SDLC of the new HR system we will be guaranteed of a successful project completion and rollout. Thank You. IT System Manager 09/01/2013 References Wich, Darren. 2009. â€Å"Project Scope Management† IS 6840. Online http://www.umsl.edu/~sauterv/analysis/6840_f09_papers/Wich/scopemanagement.html Heldman, Kim. PMP, April 14th, 2009. â€Å"The Importance of the Project Scope Statement†. Lakewood, Colorado. Online. http://pm.97things.oreilly.com/wiki/index.php/The_Importance_of_the_Project_Scope_Statement Blankenburg, Joanne. September 9th, 2012 â€Å"Use Joint Application Design (JAD)

An analysis of the key factors that influence the levels of motivation

An analysis of the key factors that influence the levels of motivation The purpose of this study are the motivational factors that Shell Pakistan use to motivates its employees to work in different departments. I have taken five departments: Sales, Marketing, Finance, HR and Production department. As around 300 people work in Shell and to motivate them shell uses different motivational theories which may include Alderfers ERG Theory, McClellands Theory of Needs, Equity Theory, Expectancy Theory. These are the following motivational factors that these departments practice continuously to motivate employees. Employee Appraisal Intrinsic Awards Employee Involvement Skill-based Pay Plans Flexible Benefits Benefits programme Training provision Time off and time out Our diverse global community Sports and social activities Listening to our employees After the analysis of complete survey we can conclude that employees of SHELL PAKISTAN enjoys different attributes of Motivation like they have Job Satisfaction as they believe they have personal and professional growth opportunities, they feel they have empowerment. They have very skillful, high-quality and superior working environment. They believe that their performance is appreciated will result in reward as SHELL PAKISTAN is having EDR system. The one thing that may be a cause of de-motivation is SHELL PAKISTAN does not offer tailored benefits. CORPORATE PROFILE Second Largest oil marketing company in Pakistan with an average turnover of over US$3.4 billion and market share of over 24% in black oil and 35% in white oil. Blue chip organization with market capitalization of around Rs. 44 billion {US$ 755 million} contributing US$ 873 million to the national exchequer. Regained market leadership in Mogas during FY 04 by elevating market share to 44% Set financial landmarks over the last 4 years with earnings almost doubled from Rs.2.3 billion to Rs. 7.06 billion maximizing shareholders value. Only Pakistani corporation to become member of the World Economic Forum based on stringent and forward looking criteria. Only company in Pakistan whose turnaround and remarkable performance is cited in various case studies both locally and internationally. Around 3,800 retail outlets across the country including 1,000 New Vision outlets commissioned within five years. Vast infrastructure of 9 installations and 23 depots from Karachi to Chitral and a supply chain supported by 2000 strong tank-lorry fleet and 950 railway wagons. Extensive storage capacity, almost 15% of total national storage, i.e. around 160,000 metric tons. A company fully aware of HSE standards and using these as part of continuous improvement process. ISO 9001:2000 certification of major retail outlets, Mobile Quality Testing Units and key installations/ depots and ISO 14001:1996 distinction for Kemari Terminal C. Leading National Company committed to support ongoing or innovative social and charitable projects in the field of education, health, welfare, women empowerment, etc. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 COMPANY INTRODUCTION 7 1.1 Introduction 7 1.2 Vision Evaluation 8 1.3 Values 8 1.4 Responsibilities: 8 1.5 Future Engagements 9 2 MOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATION 11 2.1 Definition 11 2.2 Motivation Process 11 2.3 Employee Motivation at Workplace 11 3 MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES ADOPTED AT SHELL PAKISTAN 13 3.1 Alderfers ERG Theory 13 3.1.1 Difference between Maslows Hierarchy of Need Alderfers 13 3.1.2 Alderfers ERG Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN 14 3.1.3 Relatedness 15 3.1.4 Growth 15 3.2 Equity Theory 16 3.2.1 Theory Overview 16 3.2.2 Equity Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN 18 3.3 Expectancy Theory 18 3.3.1 Theory Overview: 18 3.3.2 Expectancy Flowchart: 19 3.3.3 Expectancy Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN 20 4 OTHER MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AT SHELL PAKISTAN 21 4.1 Employee Appraisal 21 4.2 Intrinsic Awards at SHELL PAKISTAN 23 4.3 Employee Involvement 24 4.3.1 Employee Involvement AT SHELL PAKISTAN 24 4.4 Flexible Benefits 25 4.4.1 Retirement Plans 25 4.4.2 Health Insurance 26 4.4.3 Unexpected Conditions 26 4.4.4 Rightsizing 27 4.5 De-motivated Employees 27 4.5.1 Counseling 27 4.5.2 Career Development 27 5 SURVEY DETAILS 28 5.1 Job Satisfaction 28 5.2 Work Environment 30 5.3 Employee Empowerment 32 5.4 Performance Appraisal Satisfaction 33 5.5 Flexible Benefits 35 6 CONCLUSION 36 7 RECOMMENDATION 38 8 APPENDIX A: Survey Questionnaire 39 COMPANY INTRODUCTION Introduction The history of Shell as a brand name in South Asia is more than 100 years old. Shell brand name dating back to 1899 when Asiatic Petroleum, the marketing arm of two companies: Shell Transport Company and Royal Dutch Petroleum Company began their imports of kerosene oil from Azerbaijan in South Asia. Till today, the heritage of the past is noticeable in a market of South Asia since 1898 In 1928, to make their distribution capability efficient effective, the market concentration of  Royal Dutch Shell plc and the Burma Oil Company Limited in sub-continent had merged and Burma Shell Oil Storage Distribution Company of sub-continent was born. After the independence of Islamic Republic of Pakistan in 1947, the name changed to the Burma Shell Oil Distribution Company of Pakistan. During 1970, when 51% of the shareholding was transferred to Pakistani investors, the name changed to Pakistan Burma Shell (PBS) Limited. The Shell and the Burma Groups retained the remaining 49% in equal propositions. In February 1993, as economic liberalization began to take root and the Burma provided opportunity to Pakistani Investors by divesting from PBS, Shell Petroleum (Pakistan) stepped into raise its shareholding to 51%. The years 2001-2 have seen the Shell Petroleum Company successively increasing its stake, with the Group now having a 76% stake in Shell Pakistan Ltd (SPL) an expr ession of confidence Shell has an over 100 years presence in the Subcontinent http://www.shell.com.pk/home/content/pak/aboutshell/who_we_are/history/history_logo/ (Date:26-11-2010, Time:18:00) Vision Evaluation The Vision of Shell as a company related to energy industry have been very strict focused to competition. The futuristic approach has let to the group in investing innovating different sources of energy apart from oil petroleum. Values We set high standards of performance and ethical behaviour that we apply internationally. The Shell General Business Principles, Code of Conduct and Code of Ethics help everyone at Shell act according to our core values of honesty, integrity and respect for people and to comply with relevant legislation and regulations. http://www.shell.com.pk/home/content/pak/aboutshell/who_we_are/our_values_and_principles/ (Date: 26-11-2010, Time: 21:00) Responsibilities: Shell Pakistan put its total efforts to implement its core values and ethical conduct by fulfilling its responsibilities expectations to its employees, customers, investors, shareholders to society. Employees: Shell Pakistan always puts the safety security of its employees first. This depicts that the organization has a deep concern for its employees value the work efforts by which it wants to achieve success. Customers: The organization has a high motive to attract retain customers by providing them the products that are competitive in price of high standards in quality. The competition in energy sector has been highly focused by Shell investments in innovative products have always been there. Investors: It is important for Shell Pakistan that its investors base remains supportive to the organization so that when it needs to expand or restructure any of its function or component, the business always have financial support to effectively pursue that. Shareholders: Shareholders are the real owners of the organization. Shell Pakistan makes most of its efforts to protect shareholders investments provide them with competitive benefits of long term (capital growth) short term returns (dividends). To Society: There are many aspects of responsibility to society. Some of them are Corporate, Environmental sustainability concern for general people that the business directly or indirectly effects to. Shell Pakistan has clear policies for it sustainability has participated in flood relief in Pakistan by providing aids to the most effected. http://www.shell.com.pk/home/content/pak/aboutshell/media_centre/news_and_media_releases/2010/flood_2010.html (Date: 26-11-2010, Time: 13:49) Future Engagements To engage in backward integration by acquiring a major National Refinery. This has a capacity of 2.8 million tons of which sales to SHELL PAKISTAN are 25%. To develop a white oil pipeline in collaboration with major POL companies so as to eliminate transportation inefficiencies. Invest in the business of coal mining to capture a lucrative fuel source to which most consumers are switching. MOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATION Definition No other topic in the field of Organizational Behavior (OB) has received as much attention as the subject of motivation. . (FTC, 2009) Motivation can be defined in a variety of ways, depending on whom you ask. If you ask someone on the street, you may get a response like, Its what drives us or Motivation is what makes us do the things we do. As far as a formal definition, motivation can be defined as forces within an individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work, according. (Parsons and Maclaran, 2009) This is an excellent working definition for use in business. Now that we understand what motivation is, we can look at the factors that help managers to be able to motivate and then a look at some of the theories on motivation. (Latham, 2007) Motivation Process Unsatisfied need => Tension => Drives => Search Behavior => Satisfied needs => Reduction of tension => New unsatisfied needs (Adair, 2009) Employee Motivation at Workplace Motivation is what gets you started. Habit is what keeps you going. Jim Ryun The job of a manager in the workplace is to get things done through employees. To do this the manager should be able to motivate employees. But thats easier said than done! Motivation practice theories are difficult subjects, touching on several disciplines. . (FTC, 2009) In spite of enormous research, basic as well as applied, the subject of motivation is not clearly understood and more often than not poorly practiced. To understand motivation one must understand human nature itself. And there lies the problem! Human nature can be very simple, yet very complex too. An understanding and appreciation of this is prerequisite to effective employee motivation in the workplace and therefore effective management and leadership (Latham, 2007) . There is an old saying You can take a horse to the water but you cannot force it to drink; he will drink if he is thirsty That is also the case with people; they will do what they want to do or otherwise motivated to do, whether it is to excel on the workshop floor or in the ivory tower. The people or employees must be motivated or driven to it, either by themselves or through external stimulus. (Adair 2009 Leadership and Motivation) Are they born with the self-motivation or drive? Yes and no. if no, they can be motivated, for motivation is a skill, which can and must be learnt. This is essential for any business to survive and succeed. Performance is considered to be a function of ability and motivation, thus Job Performance = f (ability) (motivation) Ability in turn depends on education, experience and training and its improvements is a slow and long process. On the other hand motivation can be improved quickly. There are many options and an uninitiated manager may not even know where to start. As a guideline, there are broadly seven strategies for motivation. Positive reinforcement / high expectations Effective discipline and punishment Treating people fairly Satisfying employees needs Setting work related goals Restructuring jobs Base rewards on job performance These are the basic strategies, though the mix in the final recipe will vary from workplace situation to situation. Essentially, there is a gap between an individuals actual state and some desired state and the manager tries to reduce this gap (Latham, 2007) Motivation is, in effect, a means to reduce and manipulate this gap. It is inducing others in a specific way towards goals specifically stated by the motivator. Naturally, these goals as also the motivation system must conform to the corporate policy of the organization. The motivational system must be tailored to the situation and to the organization. (Adair, 2009) SHELL PAKISTAN is a huge setup and has about 2000 employees. To keep all of its employees motivated is a very complex task, because of the large number of employees and as each employee has his/her own personality. It becomes virtually impossible to devise techniques that match the personality of all the employees. So for this purpose they have certain procedures and policies jointly for all the employees of the organization. MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES ADOPTED AT SHELL PAKISTAN Alderfers ERG Theory Alderfers theory is called the ERG theory Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. Alderfers ERG Theory can well be compared with Maslows Hierarchy of Need Theory cause Alderfers has tried to cover all the points as discussed by Maslows with a little change, which is discussed below. . (FTC, 2009) Existence: Existence refers to our concern with basic material existence requirements; what Maslows called physiological and safety needs. Relatedness: Refers to the desire we have for maintaining interpersonal relationships; similar to Maslows social/love need, and the external component of his esteem need. Growth: Refers to an intrinsic desire for personal development; the intrinsic component of Maslows esteem need, and self-actualization. (Latham, 2007) Difference between Maslows Hierarchy of Need Alderfers Alderfers ERG theory differs from Maslows Need Hierarchy insofar as ERG theory demonstrates that more than one need may be operative at the same time. ERG theory does not assume a rigid hierarchy where a lower need must be substantially satisfied before one can move on. (FTC, 2009) ERG Theory argues, like Maslows that satisfied lower-order needs lead to desire to satisfy higher-order needs; but multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time, and frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher-level need can result in regression to a lower-level need. (Adair, 2009) Alderfers ERG Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN Existence SHELL PAKISTAN gratifies the need for existence and the employees at SHELL PAKISTAN think that their basic needs are being satisfied but they dont seem to be completely satisfied with it especially with the material rewards that they get. For e.g. Average Salary The employees at SHELL PAKISTAN are not satisfied with their salaries and they consider it to be average. This view is strongly found in the lower grade employees and the contractual employees. Though the upper level employees that include the Departmental Heads, General Managers and above seem to be much satisfied with what they are paid. Excellent Working Environment Though the average salary seems to be de-motivating factor for the low level employees and the contractual employees but due to the excellent working environment that SHELL PAKISTAN provides, these employees seem to be seldom de-motivated. It was surprising for us to find that there had been various employees who just wanted to work in SHELL PAKISTAN because of the working environment they provide regardless of what they are paid and what job responsibilities are they given. This turned out to be one of SHELL PAKISTANS strongest points. Job Security Working at SHELL PAKISTAN seems to be a secure job as far as the permanent and high-level employees are concerned but the contractual employees never find it to be as secure. But due to job security being a major issue in Pakistan today, these contractual employees were hesitant to voice their complaint. (Latham, 2007) Insurance Medical Benefits All permanent employees at SHELL PAKISTAN enjoy the Life Insurance and Medical Benefits that are entitled to them. In contrast the contractual employees; realizing the downward trend in the economy, just want a stable job regardless of the insurance and medical benefits provided by SHELL PAKISTAN. (Latham, 2007) Employee Safety The employee safely is given top most importance and they also have an emergency evacuation system with which the entire organization can be evacuated within minutes. The employees also given various training and sometimes perform various drills for employee safety. The employee seems to be satisfied with the safety that SHELL PAKISTAN provides to them. Relatedness These needs are social in nature and they are about the interpersonal relationships of the staff. Good Working Relationship At SHELL PAKISTAN, these needs are quite well satisfied since the employees have a good working relationship even though there is an air of competency surrounding them. Self Differences between High Level Employee It has also been noticed that few of the high level employees at organization have some self differences that are developed due to status problems and ownership problems which effect the process of maintaining a good interpersonal relationship but then again the high level employees are professionals and they tend to forget these difference when they meet each other a global level. (Latham, 2007) Company Events and Privileges All employees are given the special privilege to join and use the SHELL PAKISTAN club, gym, attend in Company events, dinner etc thus allowing them to intermingle with each more. Growth The permanent and high-level employees are satisfied with the growth opportunities that SHELL PAKISTAN provides them every now and then. Training Employee training workshops are conducted on a need basis. Trainings are carried out in areas such as: Improvement of Business Communication skills Usage of new Computer software Encourages Ideas Employees are encouraged to put forward any creative, beneficial ideas. If the idea seems to be attractive, SHELL PAKISTAN gives the employees the opportunity to implement the idea. This turns out to be a very encouraging and motivating approach for the employees and later on the employees are rewarded if the idea is implemented well. (Latham, 2007) Employee Job Rotation For the purpose of employee growth and increase in motivation, employees are often rotated within or between departments. Equity Theory Theory Overview Equity (or inequity) is a psychological state residing within an individual. It creates a feeling of dissonance that the individual attempts to resolve in some manner (Latham, 2007) Equity is a social comparison process, resulting when individuals compare their pay to the pay of others. There is no rational or single equitable pay rate for any given job or individual. Equity is a subjective evaluation, not an objective one. Based on the comparisons that an individual uses, each individual is likely to develop different perceptions of equity. (Latham, 2007) The comparisons that individuals use tend to fall into four classes of comparison: Self Inside: An employees experiences in a different position inside his current organization. (Adair, 2009) Self outside: An employees experiences in a different position outside his current organization. Other Inside: Another Individual or group of individuals inside the employees organization. Other Outside: Another Individual or group of individuals outside the employees organization. (Latham, 2007) Individuals determine equity by comparing their contributions (job inputs) and their rewards (job outcomes) to those of their comparisons. This comparison takes the form of a ratio and if this ratio is in balance, the individual perceives equity. Inequity is experienced when ratio is out of balance. Thus when an individual perceives that his/her contribution is equal to the comparison and his/her reward is lower or his/ her contribution is greater and reward is equal, inequity is felt. (Latham, 2007) The individual responses to inequity include: Leaving the organization Reduction in performance, generally extra role behavior Attempting to increase ones pay Attempting to reduce the performance of others Rationalization- perceptually altering reward and/or contribution What do individuals view as relevant contributions? Given the perceptual nature of equity, the answer varies with each individual; however, contributions fall into a number of categories: Job contributions Include the factors that differentiate one job from another. They typically include responsibility, skills, education, and working conditions required by the job itself. (e.g., individuals working in jobs requiring greater levels of responsibility generally expect higher levels of pay). (Parson and Maclaran, 2009) Personal contributions Include attributes the individuals bring to the organization that they believe differentiate them from others such as experience, longevity and extra education (e.g., individuals with greater seniority often expect higher levels of pay). Performance contributions Include the extra effort/results that differentiate one employee from another (e.g., individuals who perceive that their performance is better than others with whom they work, often believe they are entitled to higher levels of pay. (Latham, 2007) Typical Management interests Managers generally define pay-related problems in terms of their behavioral consequences (turnover or performance). Therefore, inequity itself is not generally viewed as a management problem unless it appears to be related to turnover of reduced performance. Since the links between turnover and pay are often much clearer than those between pay and extra role behavior, turnover often becomes the only managerial focus. Therefore, typical management interests relate to keeping the employees who it deems valuable.(Latham, 2007) Typical Employee Interests From the employee perspective, the perception of inequity is a problem in itself. A unions interests lies in achieving equity for the greatest number of its members, regardless of their ability to leave the organization. In fact, it is a unions responsibility to bargain for the interests of those with limited individual power or marketability. Low morale is often a consequence of inequity. Even when low morale is not manifested in turnover, reduced performance, to reluctance to take on extra duties, from the employee perspective, it is still viewed as a problem. (Adair, 2009) Equity Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN Employee Performance Appraisal Employee performance appraisal procedure is highly accountable thus leaving no chance of inequity among employees. Employee Salary Evaluation An employees educational qualification is given highest importance when evaluating salary. It may be possible that a lower grade employee, within the same or different department, has a higher salary than someone in an immediately higher grade. Thus inequity sometimes arises among employees working in a higher group within the same or different departments. (Parsons and Maclaran, 2009) Expectancy Theory Theory Overview: The expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. In more practical terms this theory says That an employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he or she believes that the effort will lead to a good performance appraisal; that a good performance appraisal will lead to organizational rewards like a bonus, a salary increase, or a promotion; and that the rewards will satisfy the employees personal goals (Latham, 2007) Expectancy The expectancy is the belief that ones effort will result in attainment of desired performance goals. This belief, or perception, is generally based on an individuals past experience, self-confidence (often termed self-efficiency) and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goals. (Adair, 2009) Instrumentality The extent of individuals belief of performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. Valance The extent of attractiveness of rewards offered by an organization that must satisfy an individuals requirements retain them by prospect potential development within career organization. Example Include: Do I want a bigger raise? Is it worth the extra effort? Do I want a promotion? Expectancy Flowchart: (Vroom  V H.  (1964) Work And Motivation) Valence Instrumentality Expectancy OUTCOME PERFORMANCE EFFORT REWARD Expectancy Theory states that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of expectation that an act will be followed by a given outcomes and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. (Parsons and Maclaran, 2009) Expectancy Theory AT SHELL PAKISTAN At SHELL PAKISTAN the employees believe in maximum effort which leads to good performance which further results in the outcome in the form of rewards like a raise in income, promotion, performance appraisal letter etc that contribute towards their personal goals. Contractual Employee Views The contractual employees are also aware of this theory but they dont follow it because it has been found that their basic aim is to become a permanent employee. But becoming permanent employee doesnt entirely depend on the performance. It also depends if there is any permanent slot available. So the contractual employees are aware of the facts that even if they perform well, they cannot become permanent unless there is a slot available. So this serves as a very de-motivating factor for the contractual employees and this is the reason they dont hesitate to switch the job whenever they get even a slight better opportunity or a permanent place in some other organization. (Adair, 2009) Effort At SHELL PAKISTAN, the employees are aware of the fact that if they work competently and put their efforts, they will be able to attain the task performance, as the effort expanded by them will have a positive result. Performance When the employees of SHELL PAKISTAN put their efforts, they attain the desired performance level and consequently are evaluated on that ground. (Latham, 2007) Instrumentality: Instrumentality is also quite high in the company as the management assigns a certain % of work that the employees have to achieve, through which, they are evaluated at the time of dispensing rewards. The % of work is in terms of yearly goals, monthly goals and weekly goals. Rewards When the employees attain certain level of work performance gauged against the goals set at the start of the year, they are positively evaluated and get rewards in shape of annual increment; and organizational performance rewards etc. Valance: The employees attach a great deal of value to the rewards they get. The rewards are often in the form of a praise or recognition, to which the employees attach a great deal of significance. Monetary rewards are costly and require loads of time and energy. Therefore the management is not too keen on imparting such gifts. (Latham, 2007) OTHER MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AT SHELL PAKISTAN Employee Appraisal At SHELL PAKISTAN, employee appraisals are conducted annually to evaluate their work related and personal performance. The process of appraisal works in various steps and the HRM department is proud to have such a system instilled in the company where no one objects to the appraisal process as its considered to be the fairest attempt of grading an employee in the company. The appraisal process is held in between the months of July and June every year. Increments and promotions are devised after this period that becomes effective from the month of October, the same year. Performance Appraisal at SHELL PAKISTAN is a six step approach. Step 1: SHELL PAKISTAN HR department have designed two forms named as Form 1A and form 1B to measure the milestone, target achievements that were made last year. This is done by comparing the goals set last year for each individual employee under their department. Once measured, it is sought out to what extent the company was successful in achieving its target. Also, targets are set for the next year on the basis of this measurement. Step 2: In the next step, HRM department does performance analysis by distributing to departmental heads and supervisors Form 2A and 2B (Collectively known as Employee Development Report) to measure the employees capabilities on 24 different attributes and of the attribute is rated on the scale of 1 to 5; summary of these points is reflected in the table below Rating Point Summary 1 Inadequate, Not satisfactory 2 Marginal, Below Average 3 Average 4 Above Average 5 Outstanding The 24 different attributes are divided in to key 4 sections; a summary of those is listed below: Employee Development Report (EDR) A What did the employee accomplish? Quality of work Cost objective Profit objective Develop people Commitment to company vision, value and corporate objective B Gets the job done Planning Organizational communication Analysis

Pathogenesis and Course of AIDS

Pathogenesis and Course of AIDS Title: Give a detailed account of the pathogenesis and course of AIDS. Undergraduate Degree Level Essay 2,500 words   The study of HIV / AIDS is a vast topic and the literature on the subject fills many volumes. In this essay therefore we propose to take an overview of some of the most current views and developments in the field with particular emphasis on the pathophysiology of HIV / AIDS In 1997 the World Health Organisation gave the assessment that since HIV / AIDS had been recognised, over 11.7 million people had died of the condition world wide and at the time of publication 30 million more were thought to be infected with 16.000 new infections occurring daily. Current predictions estimate that at the current rate of infection 55 million will have died by 2010. (Greek R et al 2002) Perhaps the most worrying of all of these gargantuan statistics was the fact that of the 30 million infected, 27 million were thought to be unaware of their condition. Quite apart form the devastation the disease causes on a personal basis, the vast majority of those infected are young adults which has enormous implications for the social structure of their communities. (Graham B S 1998) Pathophysiology of the condition As we have implied earlier, the volume of work relating to the pathophysiology of HIV / AIDS is enormous, in this essay we therefore intend to â€Å"cherry-pick† a number of selected topics and discuss them in some detail. The implications of genetics in both the acquisition of HIV and the subsequent development of AIDS is a rapidly expanding field. The interaction between virus and host is a multifaceted and extremely complex one. From the point of infection onwards there is usually a significant HIV viraemia even though in the early stages, the patient may be completely asymptomatic. It is known that the degree of virus replication is directly related to the degree of T-cell depletion and equally correlates with progression of the disease process. It would therefore appear that HIV induces symptomatic disease process by replicating in, and subsequently destroying, CD4 and T-cells thereby weakening the immune system. (Stilianakis NI et al 1997), .Different hosts and indeed different genotypes of hosts (see on) have differing patterns of disease expression. CD4 and T-cell levels are rapidly diminished in the early stages of the disease but are not restored by effective anti-viral therapy if given later in the disease. (Littman D R 1998) One area of obvious interest is in those who appear to survive with HIV for a longer than average time before it progresses to AIDS. A study by Dean (M et al 1995) proved to be seminal in this area, with a prospective study of nearly 2,000 men. The authors considered the status of CCR5 genotype and its relation to the likelihood of disease progression. The paper is both long an detailed, but provides a strong evidence base for further research (Berwick D 2005). In essence, the main findings of the paper were that most people have two normal alleles for the CCR5 gene, but 1 in 7 has one mutant allele (technically 32bp deletion), which means that they still have one normal allele (heterozygous genotype). 1 in 100 have two mutant alleles. The rates of mutation are highly racially specific ranging from 11% in Caucasians to The significant finding in the study was that none of the 1,300 HIV +ve people in the study had the homozygous mutation, 15% of the HIV +ve had the heterozygous genotype, so the heterozygous genotype clearly does not protect against infection, but the significant difference is that the average transition time from HIV to AIDS for the homozygous man was 10 years whereas the average transition time for the heterozygous genotype was 13 years. Possibly even more significant is the fact that of the 17 people in the entry cohort who were homozygous for the mutation and in the high risk of infection group, none of them had contracted HIV. It would therefore appear that the CCR5 mutation plays some critical role early in the primary stages of HIV infection since it appears that HIV infection can be blocked if a functioning version of this receptor is not present. During the later stages of the infection it would appear that other co-receptors (the CXCR4 has been implicated) can take over the role as the properties of the virus evolve within the host. (McMichael A 1998). On this basis some authors have suggested a classification taxonomy that differentiates HIV virus sub-types on the basis of their CCR5 receptor affinity. (Berger E A et al 1998). It would appear that the viruses eventually evolve into the R5X4 (in this classification) type which allows them to eventually produce the full blown AIDS syndrome. The absence of one working CCR5 allele simply retards the evolutionary progress. (Chan DC et al 1998), This is in congruity with other pathophysiological observations. For example, it is already known that the influenza virus enhances the CXCR4 dependent HIV infection. It is thought that the pathway of influenza infection activates the CD4 and T- lymphocytes which, in turn utilise the CXCR4 co-receptors on the cell. This activation would therefore appear to increase the potential number of HIV target cells in an individual which would clearly accelerate viral spreading. (AIDS RU 1998). In the same way, syphilis is known to be an active agent in increasing CCR5 expression and is also known to be a strong predisposing factor for the overall HIV risk whereas it does not induce CXCR4 (Lafeuillade A et al 1997), From our considerations thus far it is clear that the pathophysiology of the HIV infection revolves around the build up (replication) of the HIV virus in the CD4 and T-cells. This is not an immediate process as new T-cells are being produced (albeit from a progressively dwindling stock) of non-infected bone marrow stem cells. (Greek R et al 2002) Why are there a number of specific AIDS-defining diseases? This is a vast area in its own right. The presence of HIV in a T-cell does not immediately destroy the cell, but alters its function. Each T cell has a number of receptor areas determined by the V region of the receptor gene, and these determine the subclass (and specificity) of the T-cell itself . Each sub-type has specific receptor sequences that allow it to recognise a broad spectrum of histocompatibility complexes. (Hecht F M et al 1998) The HIV presence alters the expression of the V site region and thereby allows certain pathogens to be sub-optimally challenged (Connors M et al 1997). It is the nature of HIV infection that specific colonies (or sub-types) of CD4 T-cells are depleted before others are altered. This translates clinically into the situation where certain pathogens ( viz. Pneumocystis carinii, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare, and cytomegalovirus. ) can be present, virtually unchallenged even though the T-cell population may be apparently quite active. Typically the reservoir of CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes may remain skewed despite the overall apparent adequacy of circulating T-cells. (Nosik M N et al 2002), Alongside this altered state of immunity a number of other immune-related phenomenon can be seen including some types of autoimmunity and AIDS-related malignancies including squamous cell carcinoma of skin, testicular cancer, myeloma, Hodgkins disease. Some investigators have recently demonstrated a statistically very significant relationship between a profound immunodeficiency state (with marked CD4 depletion) and the development of a non-Hodgkins lymphoma, presumably by a similar mechanism. (Voulgaropoulou et al. 1999) Aggressive anti-viral therapy has been partially successful in reducing the frequency of malignancies such as Kaposis sarcoma and B cell lymphomas. Study of these progressive â€Å"blind spots† in the T-cell’s response mechanisms suggest that a diversity of the T-cell receptor V genes can be re-established in patients with an undetectable viraemia for longer than a six month period, which is strongly suggestive of the fact that regeneration of uninfected (or immuno-protected) naà ¯ve precursors is possible with aggressive therapy. (Connors M et al 1997), There is an overall increase in the incidence of AIDS-related malignancies. This is not thought to be due to any new or progressive evolution of the HIV virus, but mainly due to the development of new and more effective antiretroviral therapies together with more efficient prophylaxis for opportunistic infections which is allowing the HIV / AIDS patient to survive for longer in the immunodeficient state. Treatment We do not intend to present any detail relating to specific treatments for HIV / AIDS but will make a few general comments. A current pressing question for clinicians is â€Å"can antiretroviral therapy ever be safely stopped?† The current generations of protease inhibitors that are combined with non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors are capable of reducing viraemia to undetectable levels. (Jordan R et al 2002), Clinical experience suggests that as soon as treatment is stopped, viraemia tends to rapidly recur at pre-treatment levels. This strongly suggests an ability of the HIV to enter a latent phase or to remain in immunoprivilleged sites (such as the testes and central nervous system). Like most retro-viruses, the HIV has the ability to integrate its DNA into the host genome even though it may remain transcriptionally dormant and thereby avoid cellular detection and apoptosis until it enters its replication cycle (Wei X et al 1995), It is difficult to draw specific conclusions from a presentation such as this as the overriding impression that one gets from any examination of the literature on the subject is both the speed and the diversity of the research that is currently being undertaken world-wide. There appear to be two main thrusts as far as research is concerned. One is the development of new antiretroviral and immunoactive therapeutic measures to try to combat the pathophysiology of the disease process itself, the other is the search for a vaccine which would ultimately be the â€Å"holy grail† in this particular pandemic. (Malegapuru W et al 2002) One of the main stumbling blocks as far as vaccine development is concerned is the difficulty in targeting the antigenicity of the frequently changing immunological profile of the HIV. (Musey L et al 1997). Considerable interest has been shown in the persistently sero-negative partners of sero-positive patients who have been frequently found to have a specific ability to produce interleukin 2 from peripheral mononuclear cells together with the detectable presence of HIV specific IgA in mucosal secretions. (Mazzoli S et al 1997), Many vaccine research projects are currently exploring the avenue of designing vaccines which have the potential to stimulate and produce HIV-specific CD8 cytotoxic T-cell responses to the HIV. Initial primate studies suggest that prevention of infection at a mucosal site (as opposed to parenteral infection) is actually possible as mucosal infection is relatively inefficient and only a small number of HIV virons are likely to be involved. (Matano T et al 1998). Phase one clinical trials have been undertaken in this regard already but with disappointing results as the immunogenic responses that have been engendered are 5-10 times lower than those produced by HIV infection with a comparatively short half-life. (Mugerwa R D et al 2002). There are a number of approaches with recombinant viral entities of various types which have also met with limited success Currently it would appear that vaccine candidates can manage to induce CD8 cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses with killing activity across different strains which can last a significant length of time, but they are yet unable to induce neutralising antibody with activity against typical transmitted HIV virus. (Lenzer J 2003) References AIDS RU 1998 AIDS research updates. Science 1998; 280: 1856-1894 Berger E A et al 1998 Nature 391:240, 1998 Berwick D 2005 Broadening the view of evidence-based medicine Qual. Saf. Health Care, Oct 2005; 14: 315 316. Chan DC, Kim PS. 1998 HIV entry and its inhibition. Cell 1998; 93: 681-684 Connors M, Kovacs J, Krevat S, Gea-Banacloche JC, Sneller MC, Flanigan M, et al. 1997 HIV infection induces changes in CD4+ T-cell phenotype and depletions within the CD4+ T-cell repertoire that are not immediately restored by antiviral or immune-based therapies. Nature Med 1997; 3: 533-540 Dean M. et al 1996 Science 273:1857, 1996 Finzi D, Siliciano RF. 1998 Viral dynamics in HIV-1 infection. Cell 1998; 93: 665-671 Graham B S 1998 Science, medicine, and the future: Infection with HIV-1 BMJ, Nov 1998; 317: 1297 1301 Greek R, Pandora Pound, and Nancy L Haigwood 2002 Animal studies and HIV research BMJ, Jan 2002; 324: 236 ; Hecht FM, Grant RM, Petropoulos CJ, Dillon B, Chesney MA, Tian H, et al. 1998 Sexual transmission of an HIV-1 variant resistant to multiple reverse-transcriptase and protease inhibitors. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 307-311 Jordan R, Lisa Gold, Carole Cummins, and Chris Hyde 2002 Systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence for increasing numbers of drugs in antiretroviral combination therapy BMJ, Mar 2002; 324: 757 ; Lafeuillade A, Poggi C, Tamalet C, Profizi N. 1997 Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 dynamics in different lymphoid tissue compartments. J Infect Dis 1997; 175: 804-806. Lenzer J 2003 Claim that smallpox vaccine protects against HIV is premature, say critics BMJ, Sep 2003; 327: 699 ; Littman D R 1998 Chemokine receptors: keys to AIDS pathogenesis? Cell 1998 May 29;93(5):677-80. Malegapuru W, Makgoba, Nandipha Solomon, and Timothy Johan Paul Tucker 2002 Science, medicine, and the future: The search for an HIV vaccine BMJ, Jan 2002; 324: 211 213 ; Matano T, Shibata R, Siemon C, Connors M, Lane HC, Martin MA. 1998 Administration of an anti-CD8 monoclonal antibody interferes with the clearance of chimeric simian/human immunodeficiency virus during primary infections of rhesus macaques. J Virol 1998; 72: 164-169 Mazzoli S, Trabattoni D, Lo Caputo S, Piconi S, Ble C, Meacci F, et al.1997 HIV-specific mucosal and cellular immunity in HIV-seronegative partners of HIV-seropositive individuals. Nature Med 1997; 3: 1250-1257 McMichael A. 1998 T cell responses and viral escape. Cell 1998; 93: 673-676 Mugerwa R D, Pontiano Kaleebu, Peter Mugyenyi, Edward Katongole-Mbidde, David L Hom, Rose Byaruhanga, Robert A Salata, and Jerrold J Ellner 2002 First trial of the HIV-1 vaccine in Africa: Ugandan experience BMJ, Jan 2002; 324: 226 229 ; Musey L, Hughes J, Schacker T, Shea T, Corey L, McElrath MJ. 1997 Cytotoxic-T-cell responses, viral load, and disease progression in early human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 1267-1274 Nosik M N, Matsevich G R 2002 HIV-1 chemokine receptors and their role in the pathogenesis of AIDS Vopr Virusol. 2002 Jan-Feb;47(1):4-8. Stilianakis NI, Dietz K, and Schenzle D, 1997, Analysis of a model for the pathogenesis of AIDS Mathematical Biosciences, 145, 27-46 Voulgaropoulou et al. 1999 Distinct Human Immunodeficiency Virus Strains in the Bone Marrow Are Associated with the Development of Thrombocytopenia, J Virol 1999 Apr;73(4):3497-504 Wei X, Ghosh SK, Taylor ME, Johnson VA, Emini EA, Deutsch P, et al.1995 Viral dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Nature 1995; 373: 117-122 ############################################################# 17.3.06 PDG Word count 2,514